TEACHER'S MANUAL 



c^FOR 



LANGUAGE LESSONS. 



DAVENPORT, IOWA : 

DAY, EGBERT, & FIDLAR. 

1875. 



_j 



"J LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. J 
# #■ 

f UNITED STATES OF AMERICA ! 



TEACHERS' MANUAL 



— FOR — 



Language Lessons. 



COMBINING 



(Drnt €mtim anft Wiltitu (Catafinsittiiti 

/* BY I X^' 

im. sudlow and A'crosby. 



A Revised Edition of "First Lessons in Language 
and Composition!' 



'CN V 



\f 



DAVENPORT, IOWA: 

DAY, EGBERT, & FIDLAR. 

i875- 






^ 



\ 



PREFACE 



In the revision of " First Lesions in Language and Composition " 
we have been prompted by the desire to make the work still more 
acceptable. 

Believing it unjust to compel the pupils to purchase, and unwise 
to put into their hands, the suggestions and models designed only 
for the teacher ; and convinced that the first plan of our work de- 
manded of the teacher too much labor in getting the matter before 
the child, we have rearranged the whole. 

We now present a separate book (Language Lessons) for the child, 
and this Manual, which includes the Language Lessons, as a hand- 
book for the teacher, hoping to serve the interests of both. 



CONTENTS. 



I. 
II. 

III. 

IV. 

V. 

VI. 

VII. 

VIII. 

IX. 



XL 

XII. 
XIII. 

XIV. 

XV. 

XVI. 

XVII. 

XVIII. 

XIX. 

XX. 

XXI. 

XXII. 



Names of Objects, . . . . . ... 9 

Singular and Plural Forms Distinguished, . 12 

Names of Objects used as Singular and Plural, . . 14 

Plural Form of the Verb To be, with a Compound Subject, . 17 
Words Expressing the Position of Objects in Relation to one ' 
another, ........ 18 

Words that Designate the Parts of Objects, . . .20 

Words Describing the Forms of Objects, . 23 

Words Expressing Color, ..... 25 

Description of Objects in Respect to their Place, Form, Parts, 
and Color — Model Exercise, . . . .28 

Words Expressing Qualities of Objects Apprehended by the 
Sense of Sight, ...... 31 

Qualities Apprehended by the Senses of Touch and Hearing, 33 
Qualities Apprehended by Tasting and Smelling, . . 35 

Qualities Ascertained through the Senses, aided by Experi- 
ment, ........ 36 

Sentences, giving uses of Objects or Substances, . . 38 

Review — Model Exercise, ..... 38 

Use of the Interrogation Point, ..... 41 

Review of Directions for Writing, . . . .41 

Introductory Exercise for Teaching Terms Designating Classes 
of Words already used, ..... 42 

Names used as Proper and Common, and use of Capital Letters, 43 
Use of the Possessive Sign, . . . . . 45 

Nouns of the Third Person, and their Corresponding Pronouns, 
Singular and Plural, . . . . . .47 

Nouns of the Second Person, and their Corresponding Pro- 
nouns, ........ 50 



CONTENTS. 



XXIII. 

XXIV. 

XXV. 

XXVI. 

XXVII. 

XXVIII. 

XXIX. 

XXX. 

XXXI. 

XXXII. 

XXXIII. 

XXXIV. 

XXXV. 

XXXVI. 

XXXVII. 

XXXVIII. 

XXXIX. 

XL. 

XLI. 

XLII. 

XLIII. 



PAGE. 

Sentences Containing Relative Pronouns, . . .51 

Composition of Sentences, . . . . .53 

Compound Sentences, .... .55 

Words Expressing the Manner, Time, and Place of Actions, . 58 
Sentences Expanded by Adding Modifying Words to the Sub- 
ject, ... . . . . . .61 

Sentences Containing Modifying Phrases, . . .62 

Clauses and their use in Sentences, . . . .63 

Review — Model Exercise, . . . . .64 

Description of Plants, . . . .62 

Compositions about Persons, . . . . .69 

Investigation by the Pupil — Inquiries about Inanimate Objects, 
and Description of the same, . . . . .75 

Inquiries about Persons Representing Different Occupations, 
or Trades, ....... 75 

Inquiries about Animals, ...... 76 

Inquiries about Plants, ...... 76 

Examination of Pictures by Questions and Answers, . . 77 

Mental Pictures, or Pictures of the Memory and Imagination, 77 
Description of Localities and Parts of Country Observed, . 81 
Narration and Description of Journeys, Real or Imaginary, . 81 
Short Biographies of Celebrated Persons, . . .82 

Reproduction of Reading Lesson, or of Narrative, Read or Nar- 
rated by the Teacher, ...... 82 

Letter Writing, ....... 83 



CHAPTER I. 



ORAL AND WRITTEN EXERCISES — NAMES OF OB JECTS — SPELLING 
AND USE OF— DEVELOPING EXERCISE— WRITING SENTENCES. 



LESSON I. 

1. Names of Objects in the School-Room. 

Suggestions. — To begin, let the children give the names, and 
spell them, the teacher writing them on the blackboard. 

Teachers will bear in mind the distinct purpose of the work 
before them — the lesson in hand, its points, method, and results. 
In addressing instruction to a class, it must be remembered that 
each of its members should be reached and benefited to the extent 
of the child's capacity. As the lesson proceeds, be fully satisfied 
that nothing said or done exceeds the grasp of the pupil's mind, or 
is lost for want of interest and attention. To express themselves 
readily and well, your pupils must understand what is placed before 
them. 

Select a word and let the children form several sentences con- 
taining it. 

Write two or more of these sentences, as given by the children. 
Criticise with the pupils, leaving the corrected forms on the black- 
board as models. 

From the list given for written exercises select two or more 
words, and ask the children to write sentences on their slates, using 



10 OBJECTS IN THE SCHOOL-ROOM. 

the words given. Examine the work and indicate corrections to be 
made. Uniformity in indicating errors is desirable. The following 
plan is suggested : The letter S may be used to indicate an error 
in spelling; C, an error in the use of capital letters; P, an omis- 
sion or wrong use of the punctuation marks. Each child should 
now re-write these sentences correctly. 

Call on as many as time will permit to read from the slate what 
has been written. This will give the children pleasure, and prove 
a valuable aid in teaching reading. Following the slate exercise, 
and in a short time taking the place of it, should be the written 
work, provided in the " Exercise Books." 

All the work indicated may form one lesson, or more than one, 
as the time at the command of the teacher and the capabilities 
of the children may determine. It may be a class exercise, or a 
general exercise for the room. The exercises may be wholly oral, 
or partly written, according to the advancement of the children. 
In regard to the- model exercises given, the most that can be done 
in the space afforded is to give an outline of the means to be used 
and the ends to be attained. Many more questions than are here 
asked will often be necessary to secure the answer desired. Many 
inaccuracies of expression not here elicited will require correction, 
and many more examples illustrating each preferred form of expres- 
sion will be necessary. But it will be no irksome task. The chil- 
dren will soon become lively and intelligent critics of one another. 
It is not to be expected, nor is it desirable, that they should always 
be able to give a reason for the correction they make; but inac- 
curate and inelegant expressions will soon offend the ear, and cor- 
rect speaking and writing become a habit, independent of rules. 
Training will be found of more value than teaching. The written 
exercises may be introduced by an exercise like the one which fol- 
lows : — 



OBJECTS IN THE SCHOOL-ROOM. 11 

MODEL EXERCISE. 

Teacher. Children, you may tell me the names of things which 
you see in the school-room. (Writing the names as given.) 

Children. Book, chair, table, chalk, slate, pencil, clock, stove, 
rubber, picture, desk. 

T. Think of something about a book, and tell me. 

Mary. The book is new. 

John. The book is torn. 

T. What did I tell you to do before telling me about a book? 

Nellie. You told us to think of something about a book. 

T. Then, what may we say that this (pointing) tells, besides 
what Mary has said about the book ? 

Fred. It tells what Mary thought about the book ? 

T. Eight; and words rightly put together so as to express 
thought, form what is called a sentence. How many sentences, then, 
have we here ? 

Alice. There are two sentences. 

T. Tell me, in a sentence, something which you think about 
the chalk. 

Bessie. The chalk is white. 

T. What is the difference between these two letters ? (Pointing 
to the letter t in the words The and white in the last sentence.) 

Lizzie. One is large, and the other is small. 

T. Eight. Tell me of any other difference. 

Paul. They are of different shape. 

T. Yes ; and when a letter is made larger and of a different 
form from the same letter used in other parts of the sentence, as 
this one (pointing to the capital letter), it is called a capital letter. 
In beginning a sentence, we should always use a capital letter; and, 
at the end of a sentence, until I teach you other marks, we will 



12 • NAMES OF OBJECTS. 



.make a small dot, like this (making a period), called a period. To- 
morrow you may write on your slates three sentences : One about 
the table, one about a chair, and one about a book (writing the 
names on the blackboard), taking care to spell all the words cor- 
rectly, to use a capital letter at the beginning of each sentence, and 
to put a period at the end of each. 

Note. — These exercises should be extended and varied as much as time will 
allow. The chief objects to be attained are : first, to furnish matter for simple 
exercise in thought; and, second, to cultivate habits of correct and ready expres- 
sion. 



LESSOR LI. 



2. Names of Objects, Distinguishing the Singular from the 

Plural Form. 

Suggestions. — In the following exercise the more exceptional 
cases for the formation of plurals have been purposely omitted. If, 
at any time, it seems necessary, a special exercise may be given. 

The pupil should be required to spell each word given as the 
teacher writes it. 

MODEL EXERCISE. 

Teacher. (Holding up one pointer.) What is this ? 

Children. It is a pointer. 

T. (Holding up two.) What are these? 

Ch. They are pointers. 

T. (Holding up more than two.) What are these ? 

Ch. They are pointers. 



NAMES OF OBJECTS. - 13 



T. When you told me the name of one, what did I write ? 

Ch. You wrote pointer. 

T. When you gave me the name of more than one ? 

Ch. You wrote pointers. 

T. What letter did I add to the name of one to make it mean 
more than one? 

Ch. You added the letter s. 

T. (Writing.) What word have I now written un the black- 
board? 

Ch. You have written the word hat. 

T. How many does it mean ? 

Ch. It means one. 

T. (Adding s.) How many does it now mean ? 

Ch. It means more than one. 

T. When we want to change some word so that it may mean 
more than one, what must we add to it ? 

Ch. We must add s. 

T. What have I now in my hand ? 

Ch. You have a box. 

T. (Writing the name.) How shall I change this word so that 
it will mean more than one ? 

Ch. By adding the letter s. 

T. I have done so. Now what have we ? 

Ch. (Trying to pronounce it, find it difficult.) 

T. You see that when the letter s comes next after the letter x, 
in the same word, it is hard to pronounce. So that, in most words 
which eud in x, we add es to make the word mean more than one. 
A few words take another form. 

Spell the word fox so that it will mean more than one. 

Ch. F-o-x, fox, e-s, es, foxes. 

T. Correct. There are a few words that end with the letters ch 



14 OBJECTS USED AS SINGULAR AND PLURAL. 



and sh to which we add es when we want tbem to denote more than 
one; as, church, churches; thrush, thrushes (writing words on 
blackboard). Also, a few words ending with ss ; as, glass, glasses. 

Now, some one spell lady for me — Mary. 

Mary. L-a, la, d-y, dy, lady. 

T. Eight. John may spell this word so as to make it mean 
more than one, and I will write it. 

John. L-a, la, d-y-s, dys, ladys. 

T. Wrong. Some one else try. 

Peter. L-a, la, d-y-e-s, dyes, ladyes. 

T. Still wrong. I will show you (writing the word correctly), 
and you will soe that in this case we have not only added es, but 
have changed y to i, to make the word mean more than one . 

Next, you may write on your slates the following words, spelling 
them so that each may mean more than one: boy, pen, table, field, 
hen, cat, bird, horse, cow, flower, egg, hand. 

Note. — See page 7, Language Lessons. 



LESSON III. 

3. Names of Objects used as Singular and Plural. 

Suggestions. — This lesson is intended to give further practice in 
plural forms, and correct ideas of their use in sentences. 

Special attention must be given to the form of the verb used with 
the plural forms' of names. 

If teachers neglect to note critically the results of their instruc" 
tion, the best methods will often fail to secure the end sought. The 
correcting and re-writing of these exercises, when given as written 
exercises, should not be lost sight of. 



OBJECTS USED AS SINGULAR AND PLURAL. 15 

MODEL EXERCISE. 

Teacher. Children, you remember that in making sentences we 
have used names meaning but one object; but now that you have 
learned to spell words so as to mean more than one, we will talk of 
more than one object of the same kind. You may tell me some- 
thing about slates. 

Ellen. Slates are to write on. 

Jane. Slates have frames. 

T. Very good. Tell me something about pencils. 

George. I can use a pencil. 

T. That is correct ; we say a pencil, but not a pencils. But we 
w«re to talk about pencils. Julia. 

Julia. I can use pencils. 

T. That is right. Now say something of pens. 

Fred. Pens is good. 

T. Not right; we use is when we speak of one object. We say, 
a pen is^good ; not pens is good. Lizzie may try. 

Lizzie. Pens are good. 

T. Shall I say, apples are good, or apples is good ? 

Ch. Apples are good. 

T. Shall I say, these boys is idle, or these boys are idle ? 

Ch. These boys are idle. 

T. You see what is in this apple (showing the seeds); what, 
then, will you say of the apple ? 

Ch. The apple has seeds. 

T. Right. But suppose you speak of apples; then, what would 
you say? 

Ch. The apples has seeds. 

T. No. We must use another word instead of has with a name 
that means more than one object — Nellie. 



16 OBJECTS USED AS SINGULAR AND PLURAL. 

Nellie. The apples have seeds. 

T. Correct. Shall 1 say, the books have covers, or the books 
has covers ? 

Oh. The books have covers. 

T. The slates has frames, or the slates have frames ? 

Ch. The slates have frames. 

T. (Taking books from the table.) Where are the books ? 

Ch. The books are in your hand. 

T. Where, before I took them ? 

Ch. The books was on the table. 

T. Wrong. We may say the book was, but not the books was. 
Think of another word for was. 

Louis. The books were on the table. 

T. Shall I say, your hats were in the hall, or your hats was in 
the hall? 

Ch. Your hats were in the hall. 

T. The crayons was in the box, or the crayons were in the box ? 

Ch. The crayons were in the box. 

T. Now, what three words have we learned to use with names 
that mean more than one object ? 

Ch. The words are, have, and were. 

T. And with what are we to use these words ? 

Ch. With names that mean more than one object. 

T. That is as far as we will go, until we have seen how well you 
understand this. 

You may now form sentences, using in each a name that you 
have written in your previous exercise. 

Note. — The sentences prepared by the pupil should be carefully criticised, 
and, after the corrections are indicated, re-written correctly. The last form pre- 
sented to the pupil's mind should be the correct one. The construction, or- 
thography, punctuation, and penmanship must each receive attention. 



SENTENCES FORMED. 17 



LESSON IV. 

4. Sentences Formed, Containing the Plural Form of the Verb 
To be with a Compound Subject. 

Suggestions. — The object of this lesson is to illustrate further the 
use of the plural forms of is and was, as used with a compound sub- 
ject. It is thought best in this lesson to call attention only to the 
use of two name words, connected by and. The combination of a 
greater number of simple subjects will appear in its proper place. 

MODEL EXERCISE. 

Teacher. In these last exercises you have been using the words 
are and were with a name denoting more than one object of the 
same kind. These words have other uses, one of which I want you 
now to learn. Tell me what is on the table. 

John. The book is on the table. 

Minnie. The ink-stand is on the table. 

T. Speak of both together. 

Fred. The book and ink-stand are on the table. 

T. Correct. What word was changed when you spoke of both 
together ? 

Mary. The word is was changed to are. 
. T. How many names did you use ? 

Nellie. Two names. 

T. Why not use one name that means more than one object, as 
you did in other lessons ? 

George. Because the book and ink-stand are not alike. 

T. With what word did you join together the two names ? 

Ella. With the word and. 



18 SENTENCES FORMED. 



T. Tell me something of both the window and the door. 

Sam. The window and the door are open. 

T. When we say the same thing of two or more objects, shall 
we use is or are ? 

Jane. We must use are. 

T. Tell me something of the fridt we had yesterday. 

Paul. The apples and pears were good. 

T. Of Henry's paper and string before he picked them up. 

Susan. The paper and string was on the floor. 

Frank. The paper and string were on the floor. 

T. Eight. It makes no difference whether each name that is 
joined together with and means more than one, or but one, for, in 
either case, we must use the word were. Now, you have learned 
two ways of using the words are and were. What are they? 

Joseph. We must use the words are and were with names that 
mean more than one object, and with two names that are joined 
together by and. 

Note. — Let this be followed by practice on slate and blackboard. 



LESSON V. 



5. Sentences Formed, Containing Words Expressing where Ob- 
jects ARE, OR THE POSITIONS OF OBJECTS IN KeLATION TO ONE 

Another. 

Suggestions, — Teachers, in their instructions, must not overlook 
the fact that the mind does not think of objects as independent and 
separate from other objects. It is natural for the child to connect, 
in thought, each object with some other object. The difficulty on 



SENTENCES FORMED. x 19 



the part of the untaught mind seems to be in giving ready and 
proper expression to these intuitions — not of the objects, merely, 
but of the objects in their relation to each other. This may serve 
as an explanation to the very common experience of teachers, that 
the idea of relation in technical grammar is a source of perplexity 
to the pupil. 

The lessons that follow are attempts to meet the early difficulty 
of expression, and, possibly, to anticipate the later one in the study 
of the Science of Language. 

In giving instruction, it will be found best to use, first, the words 
that represent the more obvious relations; as: in, on; over, above; 
under, below; before, behind, etc. The teacher will observe that 
we have arranged these words in pairs, which will prove suggestive. 

It will be necessary for the teacher to develop in the minds of the 
children the ideas of relation expressed by these words before re- 
quiring their use in sentences. 

MODEL EXERCISE. 

Teacher. (Holding book.) Where is the book ? 

Children. In your hand. 

T. What is in my hand ? 

Ch. The book is in your hand. 

T. (Placing book on the table.) Where is the book ? 

Ch. The book is on the table. 

T. Correct. Some boy tell me where his slate is. 

Peter. My slate is in my desk. 

T. Where are we ? 

Ch. We are in the school-room. 

T. Where are the pictures ? 

Ch. The pictures are on the wall. 

T. Now look carefully at what I have written (the complete sen- 



20 SENTENCES FORMED. 



tences having been placed on the blackboard), and tell me what 
word you have used in each of the sentences, " The book is in your 
hand," " My slate is in my desk," and " We are in the school-room," 
in telling where the book is, where the slate is, and where we are. 

Ch. We used the word in. 

T. Some one tell me where something else in the school-room 
is, using the word in. 

Mary. My pencil is in my pocket. 

John. My lesson is in the book. 

T. Now tell me what word you used in each of the sentences, 
" The book is on the table," " The pictures are on the wall," in 
telling where the book is and the pictures are. 

Ch. We used the word on. 

T. Use the same word in telling me where something else is. 

Frank. The maps are on the wall. 

Henry. The cover is on the book. 

T. That will do. To-morrow you may each write on your slates 
two sentences, using in each the word in, and two sentences, using 
in each the word on. 

Note.— Each of the written exercises should be preceded by an oral lesson, 
similar to the model exercise given. See Language Lessons, page 10. 



LESSON VI. 



6. Sentences Formed, Containing Words that Designate the 

Parts of Objects. 

Suggestions. — The main purpose of this lesson is to teach the 
formation of sentences describing objects as made up of parts. It 
is also designed to instruct the pupil in combining simple sentences, 
and in the use of the comma in such sentences. 



SENTENCES FORMED. 21 



The exercises under this lesson will not, necessarily, involve the 
naming of all the parts of -an object, but only so many as will give 
the pupil material for forming the required sentences, and facility 
in using the comma. 

MODEL EXERCISE. 

Teacher. (Holding a whip and directing attention to parts.) 
Name this part of the whip. 

George. The handle. 

James. The stock. 

T. We will use the word stock. And this part of the whip? 

Edward. The lash. 

T. Then what has the whip ? 

Nettie. The whip has a stock. 

Julia. The whip has a lash. 

T. Mary may say the same in one sentence. 

Mary. The whip has a stock, and the whip has a lash. 

T. Some one may say the same with fewer words. 

Jane. The whip has a stock, and a lash. 

T. Correct. What words have been left out ? 

Fred. The words, " the whip has." 

T. What word have you used that you did not use at first ? 

Paul. We have used the word " and." 

T. For what have you used the word and ? 

Ellen. To join the parts of the sentence. 

T. Good. And when a sentence is made up of parts, as this 
one, the parts are separated by a mark, thus (placing a comma be- 
fore " and "), called a comma. 

T. (Showing knife.) Tell me of the parts of the knife. (Writing 
sentences as given.) 

John. The knife has a handle. 



22 SENTENCES FORMED. 



George. The knife has a blade. 

T. Observe when I open and shut the knife. 

Peter. The knife has a back-spring. 

T. Look at your own knives. 

Merman. The knife has rivets. 

T. Now read what I have written. 

Ch. "The knife has a handle." " The knife has a blade." "The 
knife has a back-spring." " The knife has rivets." 

T. What words of the first sentence have you repeated in the 
last three sentences ? 

John. The words "the knife has." 

T. Put these in one sentence, and do not repeat these words. 

Anna. The knife has a handle, and a blade, and a back-spring, 
and rivets. 

T. That is one sentence, but we still have some words repeated. 
Mary try. 

Mary. The knife has a handle, and blade, back-spring, rivets. 

T. No words repeated, but it does not sound quite right — Lucy. 

Lucy. The knife has a handle, blade, back-spring, and rivets. 

T. Correct. The other words that were repeated we leave out 
except where first used, but and, the word that we use to join the 
parts together, may be left out at all places except the last. It is 
sometimes repeated, but in such sentences as these we will omit it. 
Of how many parts of the knife have we spoken ? 

Ch. Of four parts. 

T. How many parts has our sentence ? 

Ch. It has four parts. 

T. Where shall I put the commas ? 

Mary. Put one after " handle." 

Thomas. Put another after " blade/' 
Sam. And one after " back-spring." 



SENTENCES FORMED. 23 



T. All right. Next you may write in the same way about the 
table, and about the stove. 



LESSON VII. 

7. Sentences Formed, Containing Words Describing the Forms 

of Objects. 

Suggestions. — It is not the design of this lesson to do more than 
instruct in the use of the more common words denoting the forms 
of familiar objects. 

It is presumed that the children already know, practically, the 
meaning of each of these terms. If, however, in describing the 
form of any object, it be found necessary to use a word the mean- 
ing of which is not known, such meaning should be taught before 
the word is required to be used. 

MODEL EXERCISE. 

Teacher. (Showing the ball.) Tell me the shape of this ball. 
Children. The ball is round. 
T. The shape of this apple ? 
Ch. The apple is round. 
T. Speak of both together. 
Ch. The apple and the ball are round. 

T. (Showing two sticks.) What difference between these two 
sticks ? 

Kate. One is long, and the other is short. 

T. What is long, and what is short ? 

Joseph. One stick is long, and one stick is short. 



24 SENTENCES FORMED. 



T. Julia try. 

Julia. One stick is long, and one is short. 

T. (Making two marks of different length.) Tell me the differ- 
ence between these two marks. 

Ch. One mark is long, and the other is short. 

T. Very well. Name something that you see that is either long 
or short. 

Mary. My pencil is short. 

T. All hold up your pencils. Now, Henry, tell me about yours. 

Henry. My pencil is long. 

T. Yes, it is longer than Charlie's. Think of something else 
that is long or short. 

Nellie. Your pointer is long. 

Anna. The rubber is short. 

Joseph. My ruler is long. 

Samuel. The blackboard is long. 

T. (Passing pointer along the length of the blackboard.) r Fhis 
way ot the blackboard is long ; but what can we say of the black- 
board in this direction ? (Passing pointer from top to bottom.) 

Ch. It is short. 

T. True; but we cannot say at the same time that the black- 
board is both long and short. Now, what may we call this way of 
the blackboard? (Pointing along the length.) 

Fred. The long way of the blackboard. 

T. And this way ? (Pointing from top to bottom.) 

John. The short way of the blackboard. 

T. I think that some one can use one word in the place of the 
" long way." Sarah may try. 

Sarah. The length of the blackboard. 

T. Right. The blackboard is long, and this is the length of the 
blackboard (pointing), and what you called the " short way " 



WORDS EXPRESSING COLOR. 25 

(pointing), is the breadth of the blackboard. Now tell me what 
the blackboard has. 

George. The blackboard has length and breadth. 

T. Mention other things that have length and breadth. 

Anna. My slate has length and breadth. 

Fred. The top of the table has length and breadth. 

Lucy. The floor has length and breadth. 

T. Before we attempt to make sentences, I want you to see how 
many things you can find that are round, or long, or short, or that 
have length and breadth, and then you may write four sentences ; 
one telling of things that are round, one of things that are long, 
one of things that are short, and one of things that have length and 
breadth. • 



LESSON VIII. 



8. Words Expressing Color, used in Sentences with Names of 

Objects. 

Suggestions. — The aim of this lesson is to teach the correct use, 
in sentences, of words denoting the quality of color in objects. It 
is, therefore, presumed that the children already possess a suffi- 
ciently correct perception of the principal colors, acquired through 
observation, or by means of suitable instruction. 

Terms liable to be misapplied should be avoided. If needed in 
the description of any object, their meaning should be illustrated 
by examples. 

In using the names of objects in the school-room, those having 
the more obvious colors should be taken first. 



26 WORDS EXPRESSING COLOR. 



MODEL EXERCISE. 

Teacher. Children, look at this bright ribbon and tell me its 
color. 

Children. The color is blue. 

T. And this one ? (Showing others.) 

Ch. It is yellow. 

T. And this ? 

Ch. It is red. 

T. Tell me the color of other things that you see. 

Mary. The walls are white. 

Edward, ihe window blinds are green. 

Fred. My scarf is red. • 

James. My scarf is black and red. 

Jane. My dress is red. 

T. Your dress is red, and this ribbon is red; but are they just 
alike ? 

Jane. No; my dress is redder than your ribbon. 

T. True ; but not well expressed — Nellie try. 

Nellie. The dress is darker than the ribbon. 

T. Yes ; but that does not tell us the color — Annie. 

Annie. The dress is dark-red, and the ribbon is light-red. 

T. Some one tell me the color of this dress. (Calling attention 
to it.) 

Lizzie. The dress is brown. 

T. And of this coat ? 

Fanny. The coat is brown. 

T. But they are not alike ; tell me the difference. 

Lena. The dress is light-brown, and the coat is dark-brown. 

T. Correct. Then, besides finding many different colors, what 
differences do we sometimes find in the same color ? 



WORDS EXPRESSING COLOR. 27 

Emma. We find the same color sometimes light, and sometimes 
dark. 

T. Look at this hat, and tell me of the different colors of the 
hat and trimming. 

Mary. The hat is white. 

Lena. The ribbon is brown. 

Sarah. The llowers are red. 

Jane. The leaves of the flowers are green. 

T. Here you see that to describe the color of some objects we 
must speak of their different parts. 

T. Name some things you see that are black. 

Frank. The slate is black. 

Ellen. The dress is black. 

Peter. The ink is black. 

T. What have you said of each ? 

Thomas. That it is black. 

T. Speak of all in one sentence. 

Nellie. The slate, the dress, and the ink are black. 

T. Eight, Nellie. Where shall I place the commas ? 

Rattie. Place one after slate, and another after dress. 

T. Here we speak of different things having the same color. 
Tell me the color of roses. 

Ch. Roses are red ; roses are white ; roses are yellow. 

T. Do you mean to say that the same roses are red, white, and 
yellow ? 

Helen. No ; that some roses are red, some are white, and some 
are yellow. 

T. Right. And we often find, as you know, different colors on 
the same flower; this you will also find true of other objects. 

Write all that you can about the colors of the plant and flower 
growing in the window. 



28 REVIEW OF PRECEDING LESSONS. 



LESSON IX. 

9. Keview of Preceding Lessons, by Describing Single Objects 
in Respect to their Place, Form, and Parts of Color. 

model exercise. 

Teacher. Children, we have spent much time in telling where 
different objects are, their forms, parts, and colors. Now we will 
try to tell all of these things about one object. Let us talk about 
the clock. First, you may tell me where the clock is. 

Charles. The clock is in the school-room. 

Nettie. The clock is on the wall. 

T. What can you tell me about the shape of the clock ? 

Jane % The clock is round. 

Charles. The clock has a flat face. 

T. About the color of the clock ? 

Joseph. The frame of the clock is dark-red. 

Julia. The face of the clock is white. 

T. Do you see any other color on the clock? 

Ch. The hands are black. The figures are black. 

T. Where are the hands ? 

Ch. The hands are on the face of the clock. 

T. Where are the figures ? 

Ch. The figures are on the face of the clock. 

T. Now read what I have written on the blackboard. 

Ch. " The clock is in the school-room." " The clock is on the 
wall." " The clock is round." " The clock has a flat face." " The 
frame of the clock is dark-red." a The face of the clock is white." 
" The hands are black." " The figures are black." " The hands 



REVIEW OF PRECEDING LESSONS. 29 

ft 

are on the face of the clock." " The figures are on the face of the 
clock." 

T. You see that we have two sentences telling where the clock 
is. Some one may say the same in one sentence. 

Dora. The clock is on the wall in the school-room. 

T. We also have two sentences about the form of the clock. 
Some one put these two sentences in one. 

John. The clock is round, and has a flat face. 

T. We have two sentences about the hands of the clock. Mary 
may make one sentence from these. 

Mary. The hands are black, and on the face of the clock. 

T. Commence your sentence just as you did this one, but tell, 
first, where the hands are, then, of what color they are, and I think 
we shall like it better. 

Mary. The hands are on the face of the clock, and are black. 

T. Once more ; think carefully, and make it as short as you can 
— James may try. 

James. The hands on the face of the clock are black. 

T. Yery good. Tell me in the same way about the figures — 
Joseph. 

Joseph. The figures on the face of the clock are black. 

T. Now, what words have we in these two new sentences which 
are alike ? 

Nathan. " On the face of the clock are black." 

T. Right. Then put these together, leaving out words not 
needed. ** 

Sarah. The hands and figures on the face of the clock are black. 

T. How many sentences have we now, telling about the color 
of the clock ? 

Ch. We have three sentences. 

T. Otto may put these-three sentences in one. 



30 REVIEW OF'PRECEDING LESSONS. 



Otto. The frame of the clock is dark-red, the face is white, and 
the hands and figures on the face are black. 

T. Now you may all read what we have written, and you will 
see what a good composition we have. But, first, look closely and 
see if we have it finished. 

Jacob. There are no commas nor periods. 

T. After which words shall I place the commas ? 

Ellen. After the words round, dark-red, and white. 

T. Where shall I place periods ? 

Alice. At the end of each sentence. 

T. You may now read what we have on the blackboard. 

Ch. " The clock is on the wall in the school-room. The clock is 
round, and has a fiat face. The frame of the clock is dark-red, the 
face is white, and the hands and figures on the face are black." 

(Further contraction of the sentence is omitted, until the pupil is 
taught the use of the pronoun.) 

T. To-morrow you may bring a composition about your book. 

Note. — The model exercise may be extended in the description of some ob- 
jects, so as to include the ideas of size and weight. 



CHAPTER II. 

WORDS, EXPRESSING QUALITIES APPREHENDED BY THE SENSES, 
USED IN DESCRIBING OBJECTS. 



LESSON X. 



10. Sentences Formed, Containing Words Expressing Qualities 
of Objects Apprehended by the Sense of Sight. 

Suggestions. — The purpose of this chapter is to indicate a plan 
by which the child may furnish himself with suitable material for 
elementary exercises in English composition. 

It is plain that composition is but the properly arranged and 
intelligent expression of thought. Expression follows thought; 
therefore, the mind must first be supplied with the material for 
thought. 

With beginners, it is not only necessary to show the way by which 
they may supply themselves with the materials for thought, but, 
also, to direct thought in the use of material to be wrought into 
expression. It is very desirable that we take advantage of the 
quick and busy perceptions of childhood while the young mind is 
yet in the attitude of searching for knowledge, and eager to give it 
expression. This lesson is designed to teach the use, in sentences, 
of words expressing qualities observed, and then the combination 
of these sentences so as to form descriptions of objects. 



32 SENTENCES FORMED. 



MODEL EXERCISE. 

Teacher. (Holding up the different articles successively.) Look 
at these and tell me something you learn of them by looking at 
them. Give me the name as you tell me. (Teacher writing sen- 
tences.) 

Anna. One ribbon is red, and one is green. 

Mary. One ribbon is long, and the other is short. 

Susan. One ribbon is wide, and one is narrow. 

T. Of this ? (Showing a block of wood.) 

Joseph. The block is square. 

Elleyi. The block has edges and corners. 

T. Look at this piece of glasses I place it before the writing 
on the blackboard. 

John. The glass is transparent. 

T. (Holding up a piece of tin.) 

Julia. The tin is bright. 

T. (Showing a piece of paper.) 

Fred. The paper is white. 

Sam. The paper is thin. 

Bessie. The paper is clean. 

T. We have no time for more. What did you learn of the 
ribbons by looking at them ?. 

Nathan. That some ribbons are red, some green, some long, 
some short, some wide, and some narrow. 

T. (Writing.) Where shall I place the commas ? 

Peter. After the words red, green, long, short, and wide. 

T. Herman, tell me, in one sentence, what you have said about 
the block? 

Herman. The block is square, and the block has edges and 
corners. 



SENTENCES FORMED. 33 



T. Instead of saying bring the block to me, what may I say ? 

Jacob. Bring it to me. 

T. For what have you used the word it ? 

Children. Instead of the name block. 

T. Herman may try again, and avoid repeating the word 
block. 

Herman. The block is square, and it has edges and corners. 

T. How have you learned all these different things about these 
different objects ? 

Ch. By looking at them. 

T. Yes ; and if we had more time, we could learn many more 
things in the same way ; but now you will be able, in this way, to 
learn for yourselves by observing different objects. You may now 
look carefully at the object which I place on the desk, and write on 
your slates all that you can learn of it by looking at it. 



LESSON XL 



11. Sentences Formed, Containing Words Expressing Qualities 
of Objects Apprehended by the Senses of Touch and Hearing. 

Suggestions. — As it does not seem necessary that a model exer- 
cise be given for each separate division of sense perception, we will 
consider two in the same lesson. The teacher can make separate 
exercises if deemed advisable. 

MODEL EXERCISE. 

Teacher. Children, please shut your eyes and take what I give 
you in your hands, and tell me what you learn by feeling. When 
you do not know the name of the object, you may use the word it 



34 SENTENCES FORMED. 



instead. (Teacher distributes a number of articles.) What do you 
learn ? 

Edward. (Feeling the stone.) It is rough. 

Fred. (Feeling the marble.) It is smooth and hard. 

Nellie, The stick is long and straight. 

Emma. (Feeling a piece of velvet.) It is smooth and soft. 

John. The cloth is wet. 

Bessie. The apple is soft. 

T. That is sufficient. Give me a word that is better than soft r 
when speaking of fruit. 

Alice. The apple is mellow. 

T. That will do. Name the qualities of these objects, which 
you have learned by feeling. 

Charles. We have learned that one is rough, one smooth and hard, 
one long and straight, one smooth and soft, one wet, and one mellow, 

T. You will notice that some of these qualities you learned by 
seeing. How do you know when the school-bell rings ? 

Ch. We hear it. 

T. Please shut your eyes. Tell me something of the clock. 

Ch. The clock ticks. 

T. How do you know the clock ticks ? 

Ch. We hear it tick. 

T. You may open your eyes. Tell me something else that you 
know now by hearing — Mary. 

Mary. I know that the wind is blowing. 

T. What do you call that which we hear ? 

Ch. We call it a noise. 

T. Yes, and we have another word — Ella. 

Ella. We call it a sound. 

T. (Striking the bell.) What kind of a sound would you call 
that? 



SENTENCES FORMED. 35 



Ch. A sharp sound. 

T. And this ? (Striking.) 

Ch. A low sound, A soft sound. 

T. If I should strike the large bell ? 

Ch. A loud sound. 

T. Besides learning, by hearing, that the bell rings, what else do 
we learn ? 

Frank. That it rings sharp, or soft, or loud. 

T. Yes ; we not only learn that there is sound, but, also, what 
kind of a sound it is. Now, by what three ways have we learned 
of objects? 

Ch. By seeing, feeling, and hearing. 

Note. — The teacher can divide or extend the exercises under this lesson so as 
best to accommodate the pupils, but should observe carefully all the points of 
criticism. 



LESSON XII. 



12. Sentences Formed, Containing Words Expressing Qualities 
of Objects Apprehended by Tasting and Smelling. 

Suggestions. — It is unnecessary, here, to give a model exercise. 
The teacher can present objects and lead the children to ascertain 
qualities by tasting and smelling. He should assist them in select- 
ing forms of expression when improper ones are used, and give 
enough variety in objects and illustrations to stimulate the interest 
of his class. 



36 SENTENCES FORMED. 



LESSON XIII. 

13. Sentences Formed, Containing Words Expressing Qualities 
of Objects Ascertained through the Senses, Aided by 
Experiment. 

Suggestions. — By natural and easy steps, the child may be led 
from the description of objects by the aid of mere sense observation 
to a fuller description by the use of ideas acquired by experiment. 

The aim of the teacher should be to make his instruction and the 
practice of the pupil so thorough in each lesson, that the points 
gained may be used as an introduction to the next step to be taken. 

MODEL EXERCISE. 

Teacher. (Distributing sticks.) Instead of saying the sticks are 
small, what may you say ? 

Children. They are small. 

T. Instead of saying, we have the sticks?' 

Ch. We have them. 

T. What word did we use instead of the name of one object ? 

Ch. We used the word it. 

T. What words may we use instead of\the name of more than 
one object? 
J Ch. We may use the words they and them. 

T. Try to bend your sticks, and tell me what happens. 

Ch. They break. 

T. How did you break them ? 

Ch. By trying to bend them. 

T. Were they hard to break ? 

Ch. No ; they were easily broken. 



SENTENCES FORMED. 37 



T. When things are easily broken we say they are brittle — please 
remember. Try to bend these pieces of wire, and then tell me 
what you can say of them. 

Ch. They are easily bent. 

T. Yes ; and things that are easily bent are said to be flexible. 
How did you learn that the wire is flexible f, 

Ch. By trying to bend it. 

T. Bend these pieces of whalebone, then let go of one end, and 
observe what takes place. 

Ch. They spring back. 

T. Throw these balls against the wall and tell me what happens. 

Ch. They bound back again. 

T. Thus, by trying, we find that the whalebone and balls are 
elastic. Put the wax on the paper, and what happens ? 

Ch. It sticks to it. 

T. The wax is adhesive. What have we learned about these 
objects ? 

Mary. That the sticks are brittle. 

Henry. That the wires are flexible. 

Sam. That the whalebone and ball are elastic. 

Paul. That the wax is adhesive. 

T. How did you learn these things ? 

Ch. By trying, and observing what happened. 

T. Right; by trying, or experimenting — and there are many 
ways of experimenting, and many things may be learned in this 
way. Each may take a piece of crayon and write all that you can 
learn of it in any of these ways. 



38 REVIEW OF THE LAST FIVE LESSONS. 

LESSON XIV. 

14. Sentences, giving uses of Objects or Substances. 

Suggestions. — As the thoughts to be awakened in the mind of 
the child by the requirements of this lesson are so closely connected 
with the preceding, it will be easy for the teacher to continue the 
oral instruction so as to prepare the way for the exercises that are 
to follow. 



LESSON XV. 

15. Review of the last Five Lessons. 

model exercise. 

Teacher. (Giving out sticks of candy.) Tell me what you can 
learn of these in any of the ways in which we have been learning 
of objects — first, by looking at them. 

Anna. The sticks of candy are long and round. 

Mary. They are red and white. 

John. They are all of the same length. 

Julius. They are all of the same size. 

T. Put together what you have said of the form and size of the 
candy. 

Fanny. The sticks of candy are long and round, and they are all 
of the same length and of the same size. 

Mattie. The sticks of candy are long and round, and they are all 
of the same length and size. 



REVIEW OF THE LAST FIVE LESSONS. 39 

T. That is better. Of what did you speak when you said that 
the candy is red and white ? 

Martha. Of the colors of the candy. 
T. You may say the same, using the word colors. 
Joseph. The colors of the candy are red and white. 
T. I will write this after what we have already written. Now, 
as this is all learned of the candy in the same way, what part of our 
composition may it form ? 

Mary. It may form a paragraph. 

T. Right. You may pass the candy to others, and they may 
tell what they learn by feeling and tasting. 
Herman. It is smooth and hard. 
Sam. It has a sweet taste. 
T. Join these sentences. 

Ellen. It is smooth and hard, and has a sweet taste. 
T. Where shall I put the first word of this sentence ? 
Minnie. At the left hand— - near, but not at, the margin. 
T. Why ? 

Julian. Because it begins a new paragraph. 
T. Correct. Try your candy by smelling. 
Robert. It has a good smell. 
T. Yes; but you have not expressed it well. 
Thomas. It has a pleasant smell. 

T. Better; but we might still improve it by using another word 
instead of the word smell. 
Jane % It has a pleasant odor. 

T. As this is a short sentence, we can join it with the last sen- 
tence, in the same paragraph. What words shall I omit, and what 
shall I supply ? 
Mary. Omit the words " it has," and supply the word and. 
T. If I put a piece of candy into this glass of water for a short 
time, what will happen to it ? 



40 REVIEW OF THE LAST FIVE LESSONS. 

Sam. It will melt. 

T. If I put a piece on the warm stove ? 

Sarah. It will melt. 

T. When it has melted in the water, what has become of it ? 

Thomas. It is mixed with the water. 

T. When melted on the stove, with what is it mixed ? 

James. It is not mixed with anything. 

T. Then, why do you say it is melted. 

Mattie. Because it is soft. 

T. If I say the candy is melted, do you know whether it has 
only become soft, or is mixed with something, as in the water ? 

Fred. We don't know which. 

T. Then we need another word to express one of these condi- 
tions, It is proper to say that the candy on the stove is melted ; 
now, think of some other word to express what takes place when 
the candy is put into the water. 

John. It dissolves in the water. 

T. Very good. If I throw a piece into the fire, what takes 
place ? 

James. It burns up. 

T. Express it more fully. 

James. It burns if it is thrown into the fire. 

T. Put together, in one sentence, what you have learned of the 
candy by experimenting. 

Harriet. It dissolves in the water, melts on the stove, and burn$*r£ 
it is thrown into the fire. 

T. Break the candy in pieces and give one to each of your school- 
mates, and then tell me what you learn in so doing, 

Ch. We learn that it is easily broken. 

T. J^ow, we will finish by arranging our composition. 

Note.— See " Example," page 28 of Language Lessons. 



USE OF THE INTERROGATION POINT. 41 

LESSOR XVI. 

16. Use of the Interrogation Point. 

Suggestions. — The observations and directions given in connec- 
tion with the written exercises are sufficient for the guidance of the 
pupil in the work of this lesson. 



LESSON XVII. 
17. Review of Directions for Writing. 
Note. — See Language Lessons, page 31. 



CHAPTER III 



SUITABLE TEEMS TAUGHT— USE OF NAMES AS COMMON AND PROPER 
—USE OF THE POSSESSIVE SIGN— USE OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 



LESSON XVIII. 



18. Introductory Exercise for Reaching Terms Designating 
Classes of Words Already Used. 

model exercise. 

Teacher. Children, you have learned in your former exercises 
how to use many names of objects, some meaning one object, and 
some meaning more than one. For convenience in the exercises 
that are to follow, I want you to remember three things of these 
name-words : — 

First. That all names are called nouns. 

Second. That all names that denote but one are said to be of 
the singular number. 

Third. That all names that denote more than one are said to be 
of the plural number. 

Now, that we may be sure that you understand what has just 
been said, you may select from your reading lessons : — 

1. Ten nouns, and tell why they are nouns. 

2. Ten singular nouns, and tell why singular. 

3. Ten plural nouns, and tell why plural. 



NAMES USED AS PROPER AND COMMON. 43 



LESSON XIX. 

19. Names used as Proper and Common, and use of Capital 

Letters. 

Suggestions. — The objects of this lesson are to enable the pupil 
to apprehend the idea upon which the distinction, in the use of 
names as general and particular, is based, and to instruct in the use 
of suitable terms. Grammatical terms are introduced, when neces- 
sary for more correct and convenient expression. 

The use of the capital letter, in writing proper nouns, should be 
taught here. 

The model exercises given must, necessarily, fall short of the 
actual work of the school-room, and should be taken as aids in 
method, and not as rules to be followed. 

model exercise. 

Teacher. If I say, one of the boys may read, which one will do 
so? 

Otto. No one will read. 

T. Why will no one read ? 

Charles. Because we can't tell which boy you mean. 

T. How shall I make you understand which boy I mean ? 

Anna. You must call the name. 

T. When I say boys, whom do I mean ? 

John. All the boys in the school-room. 

T. Yes ; or I may mean all such persons everywhere. When I 
say Harry, do I mean all boys, or a particular boy ? 

Fred. You mean a particular boy. 

T. What kind of a name, or noun, shall we call the name 
" Harry ? " 



44 NAMES USED AS PROPER AND COMMON. 

Mary. A particular name, or noun. 

T. Yes ; or, instead of particular, you may call it a proper noun ; 
and such names as denote all persons or objects of the same kind — 
as, boy, desk — are common nouns. If you live until you are too 
old to be called boys, what common name will apply to all ? 

Har'ry. The common name, men. 

T. And to each one of you ? 

Jacob. The common name, man ? 

T. What kind of a noun is the name girl ? 

Minnie. A common noun. 

T. What other common nouns will be used instead of it when 
the girls are much older ? 

Jane. The common nouns, woman, women, lady, and ladies. 

T. Give some proper names of persons. 

Lucy. George, Mary, Frank, Nellie. 

T. These will do. If I say that Frank lives in a city in one of 
the United States, could you easily find him ? 

George. No ; there are so many cities and states. 

T. What kind of nouns are the words cities and states ? 

Alice. They are common nouns. 

T. Give some of the proper names of the states in which Frank 
might be found. 

Nellie. Ohio, New York, Delaware, Virginia. 

T. Some proper names of cities. 

Henry. New York, Boston, Philadelphia, Cincinnati, Chicago. 

T. (Writing.) My sister Nellie lives with her uncle, in Daven- 
port, Iowa. Which of the words in this sentence are common 
nouns? 

Sarah. Sister and uncle are common nouns. 

T. Which proper nuuns? 

Bessie. Nellie, Davenport, an.d Iowa are proper nouns. 



THE USE OF THE POSSESSIVE SIGN. 45 

T. Do yon notice any difference in the writing of these common 
and of these proper names T t 

Ch. Yes ; yon have begun the proper names with capital letters, 
and the common names with small letters. 

T. Right ; and that is what I want you to learn from this lesson, 
and to remember — every proper name should begin with a capital 
letter. This is our second rule, and you may all repeat it. 

Ch. "Every proper name should begin with a capital letter." 

T. Who remembers our first rule ? James. 

James. "Every sentence should begin with a capital letter." 

Note.— A good opportunity is here afforded to teach the spelling of Geograph- 
ical names — an acquisition too often neglected. 

The re-writing of exercises must not be neglected, and as many specimens 
should be read by the pupils as time will permit. 



LESSON XX. 



20. The use of the Possessive Sign with the Singular and 
Plural Forms of Nouns. 

Suggestions. — None are thought necessary, except those given 
in the following — 

MODEL EXERCISE. 

Teacher, We may say (writing sentences on blackboard) : The 
imife belongs to Mary ; or, this is Mary's knife. The boy owns 
the book ; or, this is the boy's book. This collar belongs to the 
dog; or, this is the dog's collar. Observe, and tell me how I 
changed the writing of each of the words, Mary, boy, dog, so as to 
show, with a less number of words, that something is owned by 
each. 



46 THE USE OF THE POSSESSIVE SIGN. 

Charles. You put a comma and an 5 after each. 

T. Yes ; but notice that I placed the comma a little above the 
letters of the words, and, when it is so used, it is called an apostrophe. 
Now, I want to write the sentence: This is Kate's book; what shall 
I write after the word Kate ? 

George. The apostrophe and the letter s. 

T. Right. When I write the words, Mary, boy, dog, Kate, is 
each name a singular or plural noun ? 

Oscar. Each name is a singular noun. 

T. Then, when we wish to write a singular noun so as to show 
that something is owned, or possessed, how shall we write it? Some 
one give me a complete answer. 

Jane. When we write a singular noun to show that something 
is owned, or possessed, we must place after it the apostrophe and 
the letter s. 

T. Very good. And this shall be our first rule for the use of 
the apostrophe, or possessive sign. 

In the sentence, These hats belong to the men, is the word men 
a singular or plural noun ? • 

James. It is a plural noun, for it means more than one person. 

T. (Writing.) These are the men's hats. What have I added 
to denote ownership? 

Nellie. You have added the same as you did before — the apos- 
trophe and the letter s. 

T. These shawls belong to the girls. Is the noun girls a singu- 
lar or plural noun ? 

Susan. It is a plural noun, for it means more than one. 

T. (Writing.) These are the girls' shawls. Does the word girls 
denote one person, or more than one ? 

Anna. It denotes more than one. 

T. Yes ; and, as the word girls, meaning more than one, already 



. NOUNS OF THE THIRD PERSON. ' 47 

ends with s, we will add the apostrophe only, placing it after the let- 
ter s. You may now give me a rule for writing plural nouns, end- 
ing in s, so as to denote that something is owned, or possessed. 

Sarah. When we write plural nouns ending with the letter s, 
we add the apostophe only, to show that something is owned, or 
possessed. 

T. This is our second rule. How should we write plural nouns 
not ending with the letter s ? 

Stephen. When we write plural nouns not ending with the letter 
8, we add the apostrophe and the letter s, the same as to the singu- 
lar nouns. 

T. This is our third rule for the use of the apostrophe to denote 
that something is owned, or possessed. 

Note. — See Exercises, page 36 of Language Lessons. 



LESSON XXI. 



21. Nouns of the Third Person, and their Corresponding Pro* 
nouns, Singular and Plural. 

Suggestions. — It is here intended to teach grammatical distinc- 
tions, only so far as will facilitate the instruction of the pupils in 
the correct use of the personal pronoun. 

The first point to be attained is to enable the pupil to supply a 
word for the name, to avoid its too frequent repetition ; the second, 
to enable the pupil to distinguish, in use, pronouns of the different 
persons ; and, third, properly to use singular and plural forms. 

The method to be pursued to secure the first two points will be 



48 NOUNS OF THE THIRD PERSON. 

sufficiently shown in the " Model Exercise." The last must be 
attained through the instruction given in connection with the writ- 
ten exercises. 

MODJKL EXERCISE. 

Teacher. Children, I am going to tell you a story, and if you 
think you can say any part of it better than I do, you may raise 
your hands, and I will hear you. Once, a little boy started early to 
school, but the boy played on the way, and so the boy was late. 
James may tell us what is wrong. 

James. You say boy too many times. 

T. You may tell it better, if you can, 

James. Once, a little boy started early to school r but he played 
on the way, and so he was late. 

T. I like that better, and will write it so. Frank may tell us 
what word we have used in the place of boy. 

Frank. We have used the word he. 

T. Now, I will continue my story. The teacher said to the boy : 
" The teacher is sorry the boy is late." Carrie may tell us what is 
wrong now, 

Carrie. You have repeated boy and teacher too many times. 

T. Josie may see if she can do better. 

Josie. The teacher said to him that she was sorry he was late. 

T. What word has Josie used for the word boy f 

Ch. She has used the word he. 

T. What word did she use for the word teacher f 

Lucy. She used the word she. 

T. Yes; and you have used the word she instead of the word 
Josie. Now, let us go on with our story. But the boy seemed 
sorry, and studied the boy's lesson so well, that the boy's teacher 
forgave the boy, and then the boy thanked the teacher. Herman 



NOLWS OF THE THIRD PERSON. 49 

may tell this part of the story, and avoid repeating the names, if 
he can. 

Herman. But he seemed sorry, and studied his lessons so well, 
that his teacher forgave him, and he thanked her. 

T. What words has Herman used instead of the word boy f 

Ch. He has used the words his and him. 

T. What word used instead of teacher ? 

Ch. He has used the word her. 

T. Now, I will finish the story. The boy and the teacher then 
walked together on the hoy and the teacher's way home, and this 
was pleasant for the boy and the teacher. Oscar may correct this. 

Oscar. They walked together on their way home, and this was 
pleasant for them. 

T. What words has Oscar used in speaking of the boy and the 
teacher together? 

Thomas. He has used the words they, their, and them. 

T. Sarah may look at our story on the blackboard and tell me 
all the different words that we have used instead of the names of 
the persons of whom we have been speaking. 

Sarah. We have used he, him, she, his, her, they, their, and them. 

T. These words we shall need to use a great many times, to 
avoid repeating names when speaking of persons and objects, in 
other ways, which I shall teach you ; and there is still another — 
the word hers — which we sometimes use instead of the word her. 

As it will be convenient to have a name for this class of words, 
you may remember that they are called pronouns. All names are 
nouns, and a word used instead of a noun is a pronoun. What is a 
pronoun ? 

Edward. A pronoun is a word used instead of a noun. 

T. Notice that 1 have been speaking ; that I have been speak- 
ing to 'you; and to you about the boy and his teacher. Then, how 



50 NOUNS OF THE SECOND PERSON. 

many different persons, or classes of persons, have been represented 
in our conversation ? 

Julius. Three different classes of persons. 

T. What is the first person represented ? 

Mary. The person speaking. 

T. The second persons represented? 

Alice. The persons you were speaking to. 

T. The third persons ? 

Bessie. The persons you were speaking of. 

T. For which of these have we used the different pronouns in 
our story ? 

George. For the persons you were speaking of. 

T. Then, what pronouns may we use instead of the persons 
spoken off 

Mattie. We may use the pronouns he, him f his, she, her, hers, they, 
their, and them. 

Note. — The instruction necessary to secure a proper use of these pronouns, in 
their different cases, can be given in connection with the exercises provided for 
under this lesson. 



LESSON XXII. 



22. Nouns of the Second Person, and their Corresponding Pro- 
nouns, Singular and Plural. 

Suggestions. — The method to be pursued here may be the same 
as in the previous lessons. A model exercise is deemed unneces- 
sary. 



RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 51 

LESSON XXIII. 

23. Sentences Formed, Containing Relative Pronouns. 

Suggestions. — The success of this plan of instruction, in the use 
of language, will depend largely upon the faithfulness of both 
teacher and pupil in carrying out, to their full extent, the written 
exercises provided for. All the errors into which the pupil will be 
likely to fall cannot be anticipated by the oral instruction. They 
must be pointed out in the written exercises, a better form of ex- 
pression shown, and the pupil required to put it into practice, until 
it becomes his mode of expression. 

The oral exercises, in each case, will only prepare the way for 
the written ones which are to follow. 

model exercise. 

Teacher. I saw a boy, and that boy was on the street. Of what 
boy am I speaking ? 

James. You are speaking of the boy who was on the street. 
(The teacher writing the sentence.) 

T. I met a lady, and I had met the same lady before. Express 
this better. 

George. I met a lady who I had met before. 

T. Not quite right. Jane may try. 

Jane. I met a lady whom I had met before. 

T. Right. This is the girl, and I have this girl's pencil. Change 
this sentence. 

John. This is the girl whose pencil I have. 

T. This is the bird, and this bird was hurt. Express this in bet- 
ter form. 



52 RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

Mary. This is the bird that was hurt. 

T. This is the tree, and I planted this tree. Nellie try. 

Nellie. This is the tree that I planted. 

T. Correct ; but there is another word that we might use instead 
of the word that. Robert. 

Robert. This is the tree which I planted. 

T. Now read what I have written. 

Ch. " You were speaking of the boy who was on the street." 
" I met a lady whom I had met before." " This is the girl whose 
pencil I have." " This is the bird that was hurt." " This is the 
tree which I planted." 

T. What words have we used instead of the names of persons? 

Anna. We have used the words who, whom, and whose. 

T. What words have we used instead of the nouns bird and tree. 

Alice. We have used the words that and which. 

T. As we have used these words instead of names, or nouns, 
what shall we call them ? 

Joseph. We shall call them pronouns. 

T. Right. They are pronouns, but they do not belong to the 
same class as those which you have learned before. I will teach 
you more of the uses of these pronouns in the exercises which fol- 
low. 

Note. — See Language Lessons, page 40. 



CHAPTER IV. 



LESSON xxrv. 

24. Composition of Sentences. 

model exercise. 

Teacher. You have been asked many times to observe and ex- 
amine objects, and then to express in words the thoughts suggested, 
and you have been taught to call the thoughts so expressed sen- 
tences. 

Now, if I ask you to tell me what a sentence is, what will be 
your answer? 

Children. A sentence is a thought expressed in words. 

T. Yes, that is true ; but as you advauce in the knowledge and 
use of language, you will see the necessity for a more exact defini- 
tion. You may give me a short sentence. 

Ch. ihe map hangs on the wall. 

T. In forming your sentence, of what have you spoken ? 

Ch. We have spoken of the map. 

T. For what purpose did you use the remaining words of your 
sentence ? 

Ch. We used them to say something of the map. 

T. Yes ; and these words, together with those used to denote 
that of which you spoke, make up your sentence. 

Every sentence implies, at least, these two things — something 



54 COMPOSITION OF SENTENCES. 

spoken of, and something said of the thing spoken of. If I say : The 
boys and girls attend school, of what do I speak as doing some- 
thing? 

Ch. You. speak of the boys and girls as doing something. 

T. What do I say that they do ? 

Ch. You say that they attend school. 

T. Very well. I might have spoken of persons and things as 
being merely — as, the tree is, or, as being something, or, in some staie 
or condition; as, iron is a metal; the child is asleep. 

Now, please remember that the part of a sentence in which the 
names of the persons or things are spoken of is called the subject; 
that part which tells something of the subject is called the predicate ; 
or, we may say, that the meaning of the term subject, as here used, 
is, that about which something is said ; and of the predicate, that which 
tells something of the subject. 

In the sentence : The young bird must learn to fly, what is the 
subject? 

Ch. " The young bird " is the subject. 

T. What is the predicate ? 

Ch. " Must learn to fly " is the predicate. 

T. Right; and every sentence must, at least, have these two 
parts. Then, what may you say that every sentence has? 

Ch. Every sentence has a subject and a predicate. 

T. Eemember, also, that the subject combined with the predi- 
cate forms a proposition. The bird sings. The good boy obeys his teacher. 
Each of these sentences consists of a single proposition. What is a 
proposition f 

Ch. A proposition is a subject combined with a predicate. 

T. Give me an example of a proposition. 

Ch. The wind blows. 

T. If I say : The wind does not blow, you will observe that we 



COMPOUND SENTENCES. 55 

have, as before, a proposition, for we yet have a subject and predicate 
combined. Again I may change the arrangement, and say : Does 
the wind blow ? and still not destroy the proposition, for the subject 
and predicate remain. 

In your written exercises you may apply what you have learned 
from this lesson : — 

1. By finding the subject and predicate in propositions used in 
conversation and in reading lessons. 

2, By forming propositions, as directed in your exercises. 



LESSON XXV. 

25. Compound Sentences. 



Suggestions. — We have reached a point of serious difficulty for 
both teacher and pupil. It is just where the teacher finds it hard 
to secure satisfactory results from the instruction given. The les- 
son that follows is the merest outline of what the teacher should do. 
The point at which we aim is to develop clear conceptions of propo- 
sitions and sentences. 

Each step should be dwelt upon until the pupil can readily point 
out subject and predicate, and use them in conveying his own ideas. 

MODEL EXERCISE. 

Teacher. You are now ready to take a new step in the composi- 
tion or building up of sentences. Will you give me a sentence which 
shall contain but a single proposition ? 

Children. The sun shines through the window. 

T. Some one form another proposition. 

Chi The day is very pleasant. 



56 COMPOUND SENTENCES. 

T. That is correct. Will some one unite these two propositions 
so as to form one sentence ? 

Ch. The sun shines through the window, and the day is very 
pleasant. 

T. Very well. Please remember that each proposition, by itself, 
is called a simple sentence, while the two united form a compound sen- 
tence. In winter, what might you say of the weather ? 

Ch. The weather is cold and unpleasant. 

T. If we had a good fire in the stove, what might you say of our 
school-room ? 

Ch. Our school-room is warm and pleasant. 

T. Write these two propositions in one sentence. 

Ch. The weather is cold and unpleasant, and our school-room is 
warm and pleasant. 

T. Not quite correct. Observe that in the former instance the 
two simple sentences were not opposed in meaning — the two thoughts 
expressed were related to each other, the sunshine in the room to the 
pleasant day out-of-doors — but in the latter the two propositions 
are opposed in meaning — the warmth and pleasantness of the school- 
room is not dependent on the state of *the weather, but in contrast 
with it — hence, we must connect the two propositions by a word 
that will express this opposition in meaning. Will some one try ? 

Ch. The weather is cold and unpleasant, but our school-room is 
warm and pleasant. 

T. Correct. Observe that the word " and 9 ' must be used to 
connect propositions or sentences that are related, or similar in 
meaning. There are other words and groups of words used for the 
same purpose, such as furthermore, as, etc. When we wish to unite 
sentences that are opposed or dissimilar in meaning, we use for a 
connective the word but, and some others, that express this opposi- 
tion or dissimilarity. In the simple sentence, " The sun shines 
hrough the window," how many propositions ? 



COMPOUND SENTENCES. 57 

Ch. There is one proposition. 

T. In the compound sentence, " The sun shines through the win- 
dow, and the day is pleasant" how many propositions ? 

Oh. There are two propositions. 

T. What do we call the expression formed by these united 
propositions ? 

Ch. We call it a sentence. 

T. If I write more than two propositions, as, Mary went to school, 
but Jane stayed at home, because her mother needed her, what would you 
call the propositions so united ? 

Ch. A sentence. 

T. Observe that you have called a proposition a sentence, and two 
or more propositions united, the same; then, how may you define a 
sentence ? 

Ch. A sentence is a proposition, or two or more united propositions. 

T. Correct. What punctuation mark would you place after 
each sentence? 

Ch. We should place a period after each sentence. 

T. Yes ; but if I should change the form of either sentence, so 
as to ask a question, what mark should follow it? 

Ch. An interrogation point should follow it. 

T. Yes ; and as both of these, together with the exclamation 
point, which is sometimes placed after a sentence, denote a full 
pause, we may say that every sentence is followed by a full pause. 
You may add this thought to your definition of a sentence, and 
then it will be complete. 

Ch. A sentence is a proposition, or two or more united propositions, 
followed by a full pause. 

Our next exercise .will be to form sentences by uniting two or 
more propositions. 



58 WORDS EXPRESSING MANNER, ETC., OF ACTIONS. 



LESSON XXVI. 

26. Sentences, with Words Expressing the Manner, Time, and 

Place of Actions, 

Suggestions. — The children having been taught to express a 
variety of observed personal actions, their attention should next be 
directed to the use of words that serve to modify the words that 
represent these actions. Then will follow instruction as to the use 
of correct forms. 

The forms of words used to express time, place, and mode of 
actions must be carefully distinguished from the form of words 
used to express qualities of persons and objects. Due care in this 
wil! save the pupil from very common errors. 

The pupil will next be taught the use of terms denoting degrees 
uf modifications of the same act. 

MODEL EXERCISE. 

Teacher. Children, you may again tell me, in one sentence, some 
of the different things which we can do. 

James. We can walk, sing, write, study. 

T, That will do. (Writing the sentence given.) Do we always 
walk in the same manner? If not, tell me of different ways. 

Amos. No; sometimes we wedk.fast, and sometimes we walk 
slow. 

T. We may say we are slow, not that we walk slow — George. 

George. Sometimes we walk slowly. 

T. Correct. How else can we walk ? 

Children. We can walk quickly. We can walk softly. 



WORDS EXPRESSING MANNER, ETC., OF ACTIONS. 59 

T. What more may we learn from what I have written than that 
we can walk? 

Frank. That we can walk fast, slowly, quickly, or softly. 

T. Or that we can walk ? — 

Helen. In different ways. 

T. Mention some of the different ways in which we can sing. 

Martin. We can sing fast, and we can sing loud. 

T. How should you try to sing ? 

Louis. We should try to sing good. 

T. We may use the word good when we speak of the person who 
sings; thus: he is a good singer ; but not when we speak of the act 
of singing. Try to think of a better word to express it. 

Mary. We should try to sing well. 

T. Correct. James, Theodore, and Herman may each write the 
sentence on the blackboard. (Children write.) Now, tell me how 
James has written his. 

Stephen. He has written it bad. 

T. You may say that he is a bad writer, but not that he has writ- 
ten bad. Susie may try. 

Susan. He has written badly. 

T. If he were a good writer, how would you say that he writes ? 

Ella. We should say that he writes well. 

T. As he is not a good writer, how may you say that he writes ? 

Julia,. That he does not write well. 

T. Correct. James is only a little boy, who has been writing 
but a short time; if he tries, he wil) soon learn to write well. If 
you compare what Theodore has written with what James has writ- 
ten, how does Theodore write? 

Peter. Theodore writes better than James does. 

T. And how has Herman written, compared with the others ? 

Louis. He has written best of all. 



60 WORDS EXPRESSING MANNER, ETC., OF ACTIONS. 

T. Tell me, in one sentence, how the three boys write. 

Julian, James does not write well, Theodore writes better, Her- 
man writes best. 

T. From these examples we learn that we not only perform dif- 
ferent act, but that the same act can be performed in different ways, 
and that we must use proper words to express these different ways. 
If, at school, John is a diligent boy, then, how does he study ? 

Sam. He studies diligently. 

T. Suppose that Charles is more diligent; then, how does he 
study ? 

Nellie. He studies more diligently. 

T. And if Amos gives the most attention and time to his les- 
sons, what may you say of him ? 

Charles. That he studies most diligently. 

T. Each studies how ? 

Theodore. Each studies diligently. 

T. Yes; in the same way on manner, yet, not just alike. Here 
we learn that we may not only perform the same act in different 
ways, but that the same manner may have different degrees of excel- 
lence. What words here expressed the different degrees ? 

Nathan. The words more and most 

T. If Nellie is neat, how will she write ? 

Alice. She will write neatly. 

T. If Henry is lazy, how will he play ? 

Lillie, He will play lazily. % 

T. What do we add to these words which tell what a person is, 
before we use them to tell how a thing is done ? 

Henry. We add ly to them. 

T. This you will find true of many other words. 

Note.— See Language Lessons, page 46. 



MODIFYING WORDS. 61 



LESSON XXVII. 

27. Sentences, Expanding by Adding Modifying Words to the 

Subject. 

Suggestions. — It will be necessary next to give attention to the 
use of words modifying the substantives. Their use will be best 
taught by a careful correction of errors in the oral expressions of 
the children, and by requiring correct practice in the written exer- 
cises which should follow each developing lesson. 

MODEL EXERCISE. 

Teacher. When, in describing objects, you found that the apple 
was mellow, and pleasant to the taste, what kind of an apple did you 
call it ? 

Paul. We called it a good apple. 

T. And, if it was hard, and disagreeable to the taste ? 

Ann. A bad apple. 

T. What did you say of iron, that can be used in so many differ 
ent ways ? 

George. That it is useful. 

T. In describing that which seemed fit for no good use ? 

Mary. We called it worthless. 

T. Now let us see what follows from the feelings and actions of 
persons. If you always have right and pleasant feelings, what kind 
of children will you be ? 

Frank. We shall be happy children. 

T. If you have disagreeable and painful feelings of cold and 
hunger, or wrong feelings of anger and hatred ? 



MODIFYING PHRASES. 



Lizzie. We should be unhappy children. 

T. Yes; and you might become even miserable and wretched 
children. If a boy at school, and in other places, does only that 
which a boy ought to do, what kind of a boy would you call him ? 

Mary. We should call him a good boy. 

T. If James studies well, what kind of a boy is he ? 

George. He is a studious boy. 

T. Right. What kind of a boy is one who is busy and faithful 
in doing all his work ? 

Julian. He is an industrious boy. 

T. Yes; and we might call him a diligent boy. When a boy 
neglects his studies and does not work, what would you say of him ? 

Mattie. That he is an idle boy. 

T. If a boy quarrels and plays truant? 

Harry. He is a bad boy. 

T. Thus, children, you see that, what we feel and what we do, 
help to make us what we are ; they belong together. You cannot 
expect to be happy unless you cultivate right feelings. You cannot 
expect to be esteemed as good children unless your actions are 
proper and right; and you will not be loved by others unless you 
are, in some way, worthy of their love. 



LESSON XXVIII. 

28. Sentences Containing Modifying Phrases. 

Suggestions. — There is no more important step in the use of 
words in composition than that which has to do with groups of 
words which do not, in themselves, express complete thoughts, yet 



GLA USES AND THEIR USE IN SENTENCES. 63 

are related to each other, and constitute distinct elements of 
thoughts. These phrases, as they are called, form the delicate con- 
nections and modifications of sentences. They are difficult for the 
learner, because the childish mind, in attempting to think of parts 
of sentences, prefers single words. But in expression, clearness 
depends much on the proper use of phrases, especially in the expan- 
sion of a given thought from its simple elements, the subject and 
predicate ; hence children need special instruction and practice in 
the use of these modifying phrases. These are provided for in the 
"Exercises" arranged for this lesson. 



LESSON XXIX. 

29. Clauses and their use in Sentences. 

Suggestions. — The subject matter of each of the exercises pro- 
vided for in this lesson should be brought to the easy comprehen- 
sion of the learner. # 

Each written exercise should be preceded by an oral one, and the 
previous instruction respecting expression and execution carefully 
continued. 

Note. — See the corresponding lesson in the children's book. 



m REVIEW LESSON. 



LESSON XXX. 

BO. # Ebview Lesson, Describing Animals, by Speaking of Habita- 
tions, Appearance, Actions, Characteristics. 

Suggestions. — For instruction in reference to this lesson, see 
previous lessons. This, with the hints given in the following exer- 
cise, will be sufficient. 

MODEL EXERCISE. 

Teacher. How many of you ever saw a squirrel. (Children raise 
hands.) Where do squirrels live ? (Writing sentences given.) 

George. Squirrels live in the woods. 

Sam. Squirrels live on the prairie. 

Fred. They live in holes in the ground. 

Ann. They live in holes in the trees. 

T. You do not seem to agree in what you say ; how is that ? 

Henry. There are different kinds of squirrels. 

T. That makes it plain. Connect any two sentences which you 
think properly belong together. 

Minnie. Some squirrels live in the woods, and some live on the 
prairies. 

Thomas. Some live in holes in the trees, and some live in holes 
in the ground. 

T. Do they make these holes, or do they find them ? 

Julius. They find the holes in the trees, but they make their 
holes in the ground. 

T. Join the last two sentences. 

Lillie. Some live in holes in the trees which they find — 



MEVIEW LESSON. 65 



T. (Interrupting.) Which does Lillie wish us to understand — 
that they find the holes or the trees ? 

Lillie. That they find the holes. 

T. Then be careful to say so. Change the place of some of 
your words, and that will help you. 

Lillie. (After several trials.) Some live in holes which they 
find in the trees, and some live in holes which they make in the 
ground. 

T. Very good. (Writing.) What shall we speak of next ? 

LJmnm. Of their appearance. 

T. Of what shall we speak in describing their appearance ? 

Merman. Of their parts, form, size, and color. 

Sarah. We shall tell how they look. 

T. You may do so. 

Stephen. They are very pretty. 

T. Very pretty what ? (Writing.) 

Stephen. They are very pretty animals. 

Paul. They have long, bushy tails. 

Minnie. They have bright eyes. 

Susan. They are long and slender. 

Joseph. Some of them are grey, and some of them are black. 

Jane. Some of them are striped. 

T. That is sufficient. Look carefully at what I have written, 
and connect parts that you think may form one sentence. This 
division of our composition will form what ? 

Mary. Our second paragraph. 

T. Try combining your sentences. 

Nancy. (After some failures.) They are pretty animals, with 
long, bushy tails, and bright eyes. 

Dan. They are long and slender, and some of them are grey, 
some black, and some striped. 



66 REVIEW LESSON. 



T. Now, what can these good-looking friends of ours do, and 
how, and when can they do it. (Writing on blackboard.) 

James. They frisk about, and put their tails up over their backs. 

Frank. They can run very fast up a tree or into their holes. 

Alice. They hold a nut in their paws while they eat it. 

Bessie. In the spring they pull up the farmer's corn. 

Samuel: In the summer they gather nuts to eat in the winter. 

T. This is all we will say now of their actions. Look at what 
you have said, and tell me something of the character of these little 
creatures of which so much can be said. 

Ernest. They are interesting little creatures. 

Joseph. They are quick and active. 

Lucy. I think that they are mischievous, because they pull up 
the farmer's corn. 

Ellen. I think that they are industrious and careful, because in 
the summer they gather their food for winter. 

T. Now, what is necessary before our composition is completed? 

William. We must connect some of the sentences. 

James. We must have the proper points. 

T. If you see any two or more sentences on the blackboard 
which you think you can better express in one, you may do so. 
(After some talking and trying, the following are accepted : — ) 

Mary. In the spring they pull up the farmer's corn, and in the 
summer they gather nuts to eat in the winter. 

Sarah. They are quick, active, interesting, little creatures. 

John. I think that they are mischievous, because they pull up 
the corn; and that they are industrious and careful, because in the 
summer they gather their food for the winter. 



DESCRIPTION OF PLANTS. 67 



LESSON XXXI. 

81. Description of Plants, Giving their Parts, Forms, Colors, 
Characteristics, and Uses. 

Suggestions. — The pupils will need but little help in this lesson, 
except, perhaps, some direction in finding the necessary informa- 
tion about plants with which they may not be familiar, and in the 
correction of their exercises when written. This class of subjects, 
as well as others, should be made to contribute to the moral in- 
struction of the pupil, and may be introduced by an oral exercise 
like the following : — 

MODEL EXERCISE. 

Teacher. Children, of what objects was it once said, " They toil 
not, neither do they spin, and yet I say unto you that Solomon in 
all his glory was not arrayed like one of these " ? 

Helen. It was said of the lilies. 

T. To what class of objects do lilies belong? What are they ? 

Mary. They are flowers. 

T. To what larger class do flowers belong ? 

Hattie. To plants. 

T. Eight. Plants have life, but are not conscious — they neither 
think, enjoy, nor suffer. They accomplish no labor ; they perform 
no act; and yet, in having life, they are unlike the objects around 
.us in the school-room, and like ourselves. Mention some other 
things which are true of plants, that are not true of other unconscious 
objects ; as the stone, or the stick. 

Sarah. Plants grow. 

Mary. Plants die. 



68 DESCRIPTION OF PLANTS. 

T. Name some of the different kinds of plants* 

Children. Flowers, trees, bushes, vines, corn, wheat, grass, pota- 
toes, weeds. 

T. Mention some things which are true of some of these. 

Robert Flowers bloom. 

Fred. Flowers fade. 

Susan. Trees blossom. 

Joseph. Trees bear fruit. 

Sam. The vines climb. 

John. The wheat ripens. 

Amos. The grass moves with the wind. 

T. Very good. You have told what plants do, but you will 
readily see that these are not acts that require thought and conscious- 
ness, as when we speak, or write, or work ; but that these things are 
a part of the nature of plants, as to grow is a part of our nature. 
They cannot make themselves blossom and bear fruit. ( The teacher 
should illustrate these thoughts more fully.) In speaking of fruits, you 
may say what kind of, instead of using the word character, as when 
speaking of persons. If you have a tree that bears good apples^ what 
kind of a tree would you call it ? 

May. We should call it a good tree. 

T. What kind of a fruit tree would be a good one ? 

Horace. The one that bears good fruit. 

T. Which would be a bad one ? 
William. The one that bears bad fruit. 

T. But, as all plants do not bear fruit, how else do we judge of 
them, and of the fruits themselves ? 

Anna. By the use we make of them. 

T. Mention some of their uses. 

Henry. We use trees in building houses. 

Drank. We use trees for wood to burn. 



PERSONS— THEIR LOCATION OR POSITION, ETC. 69 

Sarah. Apples, peaches, and plums are good for us to eat. 

Bessie. Flowers are pretty. 

T. Right, Bessie ; many things are useful to us simply because 
they are beautiful. We should learn to love all the beautiful things 
which God has given to us, and try to make our lives so beautiful 
that all will love us. 



LESSON XXXII. 



32. Persons — Their Location or Position, Appearance, Feel- 
ings, Actions, Character. 

Suggestions. — More time should be given to these exercises than 
to any which have preceded them. The precise order of topics 
indicated is not a necessity, but will assist the beginner. As he 
improves in arranging the several parts of his composition, he 
should be taught to vary the order, and to extend the range of his 
topics, taking into account associated persons, feelings, and actions. 
It is better, however, to " make haste slowly." One advance step 
at a time is usually sufficient for the learner. In each written ex- 
ercise let a proper amount of time be given to correcting and re- 
writing. 

MODEL EXERCISE. 

Teacher. To-day, children, we will write a composition, and, 
instead of telling about an object, we will speak of a person. In 
writing about an object, what did you mention first ? 

Thomas. We first told where the object was. 

T. And then ? 



70 PERSONS— THEIR LOCATION OR POSITION, ETC. 

Anna. Of the parts, form, size, and color of the object. 

T. We will begin our composition about a person in the same 
way, but we shall not say so much about parts, form, size, and color, 
as when we described objects, because we shall want to speak of the 
feelings, actions, and character of the person. Now, about whom shall 
we write ? 

Children. About a boy. 

T. Very well. Shall we write about a boy who is here, a boy 
whom we remember, or one whom we can imagine ? 

Ch. One who is here. 

T. I fear that would not be pleasant for the boy about whom we 
should speak, and, as all of us will not be likely to remember the 
same boy, let us imagine a boy, and talk about him. Each of you 
can think of something to say, and I will write on the blackboard 
only what we like best. As our boy is to be an imaginary boy, I 
think we will begin our composition as the story-writers sometimes 
do. (Writing on a blackboard.) Once, there was a boy. What 
are we first to tell about him ? 

Ch. Tell where he is. 

T. Yes ; or, in speaking of a person, where he lives. All think 
while I write, first, what Carrie has to say, then, what some of the 
others have thought of. 

Carrie. He lives in the city. 

John. He lives with his mother. 

James. He lives in a small house. 

Anna. He lives in a brick house. 

Mary. He lives by the river. 

T. That is enough. Mary may tell all this in one sentence, and 
I will write it, and erase the others. 

Mary. He lives in tlie city with his mother, in a small house, in 
a brick house by the river. 



PERSONS— THEIR LOCATION OR POSITION, ETC. 71 

T. Very well, Mary, but I see that George thinks that some- 
thing needs improving. He may try, before I write it. 

George. He lives in the cky with his mother, in a small brick 
house by the river. 

T. That is better. I will write it after what we have already 
written; but, first, let us see how both will sound when joined 
together. (Eepeating.) " Once, there was a boy, and he lives in the 
city." Do you like that? 

Homer. No; I think that it should be: he lived in the city. 
(Teacher can here develop more fully the idea of corresponding 
tenses as used in the same sentence.) 

T. You remember that, occasionally, in expressing in one sen- 
tence what we had at first used two or more sentences to express, 
we selected a different pronoun. What other pronoun may we here 
use instead of " he ? " 

Lucy. We may use the pronoun ivho. 
T. (Writing.) Now please read it. 

CL Once, there was a boy who lived in the city with his mother, 
in a small brick house by the river. 
T. What shall we speak of next ? 
Mary. Of parts, form, size, and color. 

T. Yes ; and when we do this in describing a person, we will 
only say enough about these to tell how the person looks, or to de- 
scribe his appearance, so that those who read our composition may 
think of him as we do. Let each be ready to tell me something 
that will help to describe the boy. (Teacher writing from the many 
sentences given the following : — ) 
Alice. He is a little boy. 
Kate. He has blue eyes. 

Fred. He has black hair. * 

Samuel. He is tall. 



72 PERSONS— THEIR LOCATION OR POSITION, ETC. 

T. That is sufficient. If I put on the blackboard a few lines 
and strokes as now (drawing), you will be able to tell what my 
picture is without waiting for me to fill it up. What is it ? 

Oh. The picture of a horse. 

T. So, in describing the appearance of a person, it is only neces- 
sary to tell a few things — the mind easily imagines the rest. We 
must, however, be sure that the few things said are true. Let us 
see — " blue eyes " and " black hair " — are these usually found in 
the same person ? Look at the girls and boys around you, and tell 
me. 

Ch: No ; blue eyes and brown hair. 

T. That is better. Do you notice anything else that does not 
seem quite right ? 

Frank. I do not think that he could be little and tall. 

T. No ; but he might be tall, as compared with his size in other 
respects. If so, how should you express it ? 

Mary. We should say that he is slender. 

T. (Making changes suggested.) Lizzie may now put our de-, 
scription into one sentence. 

Lizzie. He is a little boy, with blue eyes and brown hair, and 
slender. 

T. Try again. Put together what you say about his size, and 
then what you say about the color of his hair and eyes, remember- 
ing that we commenced by saying, " there was" not there is, and 
that we are- still speaking of the same boy. Joseph try. 

Joseph. He was a little, slender boy, with blue eyes and brown 
hair. 

T. Correct. (Writing.) Next, we will talk of his feelings; but, 
as we feel so differently at different times, it will be better to choose 
some one time of which to speak. When shall it be ? 

Kate. A nice sunshiny morning like this. 



PERSONS— THEIR LOCATION OR POSITION, ETC. 73 

T. What season is this ? 

Nellie. It is spring. 

T. Then, what shall I write ? 

Horace. You may write : It was a sunshiny morning in spring. 

T. As we are becoming so well acquainted with this little boy, 
it would be pleasant to know his name. What shall we call him ? 

Ellen. Call him Tommy. 

T. Very good. Now, how did Tommy feel? 

George. Tommy felt very glad because it was so pleasant.. 

James. He was tired of staying in the house. 

T. I would like to hear more, so many have something to say, 
but it will take too much time. Edward may tell me what to write. 

Edward. Tommy felt very glad because it was so warm, and he 
was tired of staying in the house. 

T. I see that you all are ready to tell me what he did. Paul 
may. 

Paul. He asked his mother if he might go out to play. 

T. What followed ? 

Samuel. She said that he might go. 

Mary. He ran down the steps. 

Peter. He played marbles on the sidewalk. 

T. How long did he play ? 

Robert. He played till his mother called him. 

T. Then, 'what did he do? 

Jane. He went quickly into the house. 

T. Sarah may join together the sentences which tell that some- 
thing was done, and I will write it. 

Sarah. He asked his mother if he might go out to play, and she 
said that he might, and he ran down the steps and played marbles 
on the sidewalk till his mother called him, then he went quickly 
nto the house. 



74 PERSONS- 



T. This is correct; but, as the sentence is so long, I think we 
shall like it better if we make two sentences of it. This we can do 
by leaving out one of the words which join the parts together. We 
will leave out " and " where we have used it the second time 
(erasing it). .Now, what other changes must I make ? 

Charles. Change the comma to a period. 

James. Begin the next word with a capital letter. 

T. From what Tommy did last, what kind of boy do you learn 
he was ? 

Susan. Tommy was an obedient boy. 

T. (Writing.) This must finish our composition for to-day. 
Now you may read it. 



CHAPTER V. 

INVESTIGATION BY THE PUPIL, WITH A VIEW TO DESCRIPTION. 



LESSON XXXIII. 



33. Inquiries about Inanimate Objects, and Description of the 

SAME. 

Suggestions. — The developing lessons having been so long con- 
tinued, it will now be profitable for the pupil to be thrown more 
upon his own resources. The aim of this lesson is to open up to 
the learner a method, by the help of which he can investigate a 
given subject for himself. The work of correction may also be 
left, partially, in the hands of the pupils. By exchanging composi- 
tions, and with the help of suggestions from the teacher, they may 
correct one another's mistakes, and thus become more self-reliant 
in their work. The assistance most to be desired for the pupil is 
self-help, and one of the most important requisites of development 
is self-activity. 



LESSON XXXIV. 



34. Inquiries about Persons Representing the Different Occu- 
pations, or Trades. 

Suggestions. — The exercises of this lesson will bring to the notice 
of the child a vast fund of interesting and useful knowledge, and 



76 1NQ VIRIES ABO UT ANIMALS.— INQ U1R1ES ABOUT PLANTS. 

; I 

prepare him to communicate it to others. There is much propriety 
in thus associating investigation and expression. " Men," says 
Bacon, " believe that their reason is lord over their words; but it 
happens, too, that words exercise a reciprocal and reactionary 
power over our intellects." 



LESSON XXXV. 
35, Inquiries about Animals. 

Suggestions. — In a previous list, only such animals as the pupil 
would be likely to have had the opportunity of seeing for himself, 
were selected. In this lesson the exercises should be made more 
difficult, by selecting those animals less likely to fall under his own 
observation, and a knowledge of which must be obtained by read- 
ing, and from pictures. The plan, or sketch, may be made more 
comprehensive. Any new terms introduced should be explained 
and illustrated. 



LESSON XXXVI. 
36. Inquiries about Plants, with a View to Describing them. 

Suggestions. — It may, on first thought, seem unnecessary again 
to take up the subject of plants; but, when we reflect how varied 
they are in utility and beauty, we shall have no fear that the chil- 
dren will tire of them. An intelligent and living acquaintance with 
Nature, in this department, will refine the taste, quicken the moral 
sensibilities, and provide a store of pure and lasting enjoyment. 
To so many, this wealth of beauty and happiness seems lost. "Eyes 



EXAMINATION OF PICTURES. 77 

have they, but they see not." Nearly all the graces of heart and 
life may be symbolized by these monitors of the field and wood, and 
the teacher should not neglect to impress on the mind and heart 
lt %he lessons which they bring. 



LESSON XXXVII. 
37. Examination of Pictures by Questions and Answers. 

Suggestions. — What is here required of the pupil is but a sum- 
mary of what has been passed over, with a somewhat more extended 
application of principles and methods with which he is supposed to 
be familiar. 

If the school-room is furnished with nothing better, the pictures 
in the readers and the geographies will furnish good subjects for this 
kind of composition. A portfolio of cheap prints, carefully selected 
with reference to their design, and the thought and sentiment which 
they suggest, will be valuable. Every school-room should have, at 
least, one or two good pictures on the wall. When these are want- 
ing, the illustrations given in the " Language Lessons" will be the 
more valuable. 



LESSOX XXXVIII. 

38. Mental Pictures, or Pictures of the Memory and Imagination. 

Suggestions. — The objects of this lesson are to cultivate the fac- 
ulties of memory and imagination, and to train the pupil in the 
ready and correct expression of what is remembered and imagined. 



78 MENTAL PICTURES. 



The teacher should select for a subject some word or phrase that 
will awaken recollections of objects and scenes already familiar to 
the minds of the children. The subject should so present and asso- 
ciate the objects and thoughts, as to stimulate and aid the imagina- 
tion in its efforts to realize them. 

The next step of the process is, so to group the objects and to 
arrange the thoughts in expression as to present a connected and 
harmonious description. 

The teacher should, also, study to interest the pupils in their own 
conceptions, leading them to freely express thoughts and feelings 
suggested by the imaginary picture. These thinking exercises are 
not only necessary to a due cultivation of the faculty of expression, 
but are of exceeding interest, and only limited by the capacity of 
the pupils and the ability and time at the command of the teacher. 

MODEL EXERCISE. 

Teacher. Please shut your eyes while I write a sentence on the 
blackboard. (Teacher reading it aloud.) What have I written ? 

Robert. You have written, " The sun shines brightly." 

T. Open your eyes, and tell me how you knew what I had writ- 
ten? 

Edwin. We heard you read it. 

T. In what way can you now tell what is written ? 

Ella. By looking at it, and reading it. 

T. Please close your eyes again. As you cannot now see what 
is on the blackboard, and do not hear me read it, what are you doing 
that has anything to do with it ? 

Mary. We are thinking of it. 

T. With what did you hear it, and with what did you see it ? 

Sam. We heard it with our ears, and saw it with our eyes. 



MENTAL PICTURES. 79 



T, With what do you think of it ? 

Nellie. We think of it with our minds. 

T. Yes; it is our mind that is conscious, and that thinks. You 
may now open your eyes. We found that, in moving, the body acts 
in different ways ; now, let us find whether the mind, in thinking, 
acts in different ways. You think of what is on the blackboard, 
when you have just seen and heard it, but can you think of anything 
that you saw or heard yesterday f 

Charles. We can think of the story that we heard you read yes- 
terday. 

T. Can you now think of what the story was about ? 

Ella. It wa3 about a boy who could not hear or speak. 

T. How is it that you now think of what you can no longer hear 
or see ? 

Fred. We remember it. 

T. If you visit a friend's garden, and enjoy very much the beau- 
tiful things which you see in it, what will you be likely to do when 
you return home ? 

Helen. We should tell the rest about it. 

T. Tell the rest of what ? 

Mary. Tell the rest of the family about it, 

T. If I tell you now, that I have a very pretty garden which you 
have never seen, what does your mind at once do ? 

John. It thinks about it. 

T. Tell me some of the things which you think of about it. 

James. We think of the flowers, and the walks, and the fruit, 
and the trees. 

T. Do you remember these ? 

Henry. No ; * we never saw your garden. 

T. And I did not tell you of these things; I only told you that 
I had a pretty garden. Then, you did what ? » 



80 MENTAL PICTURES. 



Julia. We thought that there must be flowers, and fruit, and 
trees in it. 

T. Yes ; you supposed, or imagined, that those things were in my 
garden. Now, we have found that the mind acts in what other 
way? 

Lucy. The mind supposes, or imagines. 

T. What else did you imagine about my garden ? 

Mattie. That the flowers were pretty. 

Nellie. That there were many flowers in it. 

Lillie. That there was fine fruit in your garden. 

T. Why did you imagine that these things were in my garden ? 

Susan. Because we have seen them in other gardens. 

Edwin. Because these are the things which grow in gardens. 

T. Why did you suppose that the flowers were pretty, and that 
there were many flowers ? 

Alice. Because you said that your garden was a pretty garden. 

T. Very good ; you have given me the reason you thought of for 
imagining as you did. Then, what else have we found that the 
mind, in thinking, does ? 

Bessie. The mind reasons. 

T. Mention, in one sentence, these different acts of the mind. 

Mary. The mind remembers, imagines, and reasons. 

T. Now, we have found that both the body and the mind acts 
in many different ways. You will also notice that, though some of 
these acts are acts of the mind, and others of the body, yet, in doing 
many things, the mind and the body act at the same time. While 
my hand moves in writing, my mind is thinking of what to write; when 
I speak, I think of what I am saying, and while you are sitting and 
listening, you are thinking. 

Note. — See Language Lessons, page 69 



CHAPTER VI. 

DESCRIPTION AND NARRATION. 



LESSON XXXIX. 



39. Description of Localities and Parts of Country Observed, 
and of Countries Represented by Maps. 

Suggestions. — The work of this lesson may be done in connec- 
tion with the study of Geography. The teacher must adapt the out- 
lines given to meet the wants of the class in this respect. These 
exercises will cultivate observation, memory, and expression, and 
prepare the mind to grasp the more comprehensive descriptions of 
Geography and travel. 



LESSON XL. 
40. Narration and Description of Journeys, Eeal or Imaginary. 

Suggestions. — The exercises in this lesson can be so selected, and 
the topics so arranged, as to assist directly in the lessons in which 
the class are engaged, and, in part, may be made to take the place of 
other reviews. They will cultivate the memory and test the knowl- 
edge of the pupil. Encourage thorough preparation beforehand, 
but prohibit use of books while writing. The first exercises will 
be simply narrations and descriptions of things observed. 



82 SHOBT BIOGRAPHIES.— REPRODUCTION OF SENTENCES. 

LESSON XLI. 
41. Short Biographies of Celebrated Persons. 

Suggestions. — Select names likely to be familiar to the child, 
through his study of history, and the reading of biographies pre- 
pared especially for children. 

All the children may use the same outline of composition, but all 
need not be required to write of thesame person. Ascertain what 
books they have read, or have access to, and assign the work ac- 
cordingly. There are some biographies, however, with which every 
American child should be familiar, and if he is not, he should be 
required to acquaint himself with them. 



LESSON XLIL 



42. Reproduction of Selections given, of Reading Lesson, or of 
Narrative Read or Related by the Teacher. 

Suggestions. — Direct the pupils to read, carefully, a lesson given 
in their book, or found elsewhere, and while the pupil is requested 
to reproduce the narrative in his own language, he must, at the 
same time, be required to make his report a strictly truthful one. 
No misstatement of facts, or misrepresentation of events, should be 
permitted. Let his motto for repeating be, " The whole truth, and 
nothing but the truth." That this result may be secured, be care- 
ful not to require too much to be done at once. 

Let a special aim of this lesson be, to cultivate accuracy of state- 
ment. Let us labor to form in the minds of our pupils correct 
habits of thinking, and insist on truthful expression. 



LETTER WRITING. 83 



LESSON XLIII. 
43. Letter Writing. 

Suggestions. — The previous practice in description, investiga- 
tion, and narration has prepared the pupil for simple exercise in 
letter writing. Other elements which may enter into the composi- 
tion of letters, as exposition, persuasion, or items of business, are 
not here considered, but may be introduced at the discretion of the 
teacher. The parts and style of the letter will receive special atten- 
tion in the instruction given for the children. 



LANGUAGE BEFORE GRAMMAR. 



LANGUAGE LESSONS, 



MISS ifW. SUDLOW AND wf E/CROSBY. 



REVISED EDITION. 



DAVENPORT, fo\VA : 

DAY, EGBERT, & FIDLAR 

1875. 



Entered according to the Act of Congress, in thu year 1875, 

By MISS P. W SUDLOW, 
in the office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. 



PREFACE. 



The object of this revision of " First Lessons in Language and 
Composition " is to still further aid both teacher and pupil in the 
important work of composition in school. 

The matter designed for the pupil has been collated, and, with 
important changes and additions, is presented in this text book for 
the children. 

Throughout the work reference is made to the " Teacher's 
Manual/' which, together with the text of this, is bound in one 
volume, furnishing a convenient hand-book for the teacher's desk. 

For further aid, a series of small blank books, each called an 
Exercise Book, is provided for the pupil. In these numbered 
blanks are provided for the first writings and for the corrected copy 
of each exercise given in the text book. 



CONTENTS. 



PAGE. 

I. Written Exercises, Containing Names of Objects, . . 1 
II. Names of Objects, Distinguishing the Singular from the Plural 

Form, ........ 7 

III. Names of Objects used as Singular and Plural, . . 8 

IV. Sentences Containing the Plural Form of the Verb, used with a 

Compound Subject, ...... 9 

V. Sentences Formed, Containing Words Expressing the Position 

of Objects in Relation to one another, . . .10 

VI. Sentences, Containing Words that Designate the Parts of Objects, 12 
VII. Sentences Formed, Containing Words Describing the Forms of 

Objects, ........ 13 

VIII. Words Expressing Color, used in Sentences with Names of 

Objects, ........ 15 

IX. Review of Preceding Lessons, by Describing Single Objects in 

Relation to their Place, Form, Parts, and Color, . . 16 
X. Words Expressing Qualities Apprehended by the Senses, used 

in Describing Objects, ...... 18 

XI. Sentences Formed, Containing Words Expressing Qualities of 

Objects Apprehended by the Sense of Sight, . . 18 

XII. Qualities Apprehended by the senses of Touch and Hearing, 20 

XIII. Qualities Apprehended by Tasting and Smelling, . . 22 

XIV. Qualities Ascertained through the Senses, aided by Experi- 

ment, ........ 24 

XV. Sentences, giving the use of the Objects or Substances named, 27 

XVI. The Question Mark, or Point of Interrogation, . . 29 

XVII. Review, 31 

XVIII. Suitable Terms Taught— Use of Names as Common and Proper- 
Use of Possessive Sign — Use of Personal Pronouns, . 32 
XIX. Names used as Proper and Common, . . . .34 



VI 



CONTENTS. 



XX. The use of the Possessive Sign, ..... 35 

XXI. Nouns of the Third Person, and their Corresponding Pronouns, 

Singular and Plural,. ...... 37 

XXII. Nouns of First and Second Person, and their Corresponding 

Pronouns, Singular and Plural, . . . .39 

XXIII. Sentences Formed, Containing Relative Pronouns, . . 40 

XXIY. Composition of Sentences, ..... 42 

XXY. Compound Sentences, ...... 43 

XXYI. Sentences with Words Expressing the Manner, Time, and Place 

of Action, . . . . . .45 

XXVII. Sentences Expanded by Adding Modifying Words to the Sub- 
ject, . . . . . . . .47 

XXVIII. Phrases and their use in Sentences, . . . .48 

XXIX. Clauses and their use in Sentences, . . . .51 

XXX. Review Lesson, ....... 53 

XXXI. Description of Plants, ...... 55 

XXXII. Compositions Telling about Persons, . . .56 

XXXIII. Description of Inanimate Objects, . . . . 58 

XXXIV. Compositions about Persons Representing Different Occupa- 

tions, ........ 61 

XXXV. Compositions about Animals, ..... 63 

XXXVI. Compositions about Plants, ..... 65 

XXXVII. Description of Pictures, . . . . .66 

XXXVIII. Mental Pictures, or Pictures of the Memory and Imagination, 69 
XXXIX. Description of Localities and Parts of Country Observed, and of 

Countries Represented by Maps, " . . . .72 

XL. Narration and Description of Journeys, Real or Imaginary, . 73 
XLI. Short Biographies of Celebrated Persons, . . .75 

XLII. Reproduction of Reading Lesson, or of Narrative, Read or Nar- 
rated by the Teacher, ...... 76 

XLIII. Letter Writing, . . . . . .80 




CHAPTER I. 



LESSON I. 

1. Written Exercises — Sentences Containing Names of Ob- 
jects. 



To the Teachek— See Model Exercise, Lesson I. of the Manual. 



Exercises. 

i. names of objects in the school room. 

1. Form sentences, using in each the name of some object which 
you see in the school-room. 

Exs. — My booh is a new one. 

The chair stands by the wall. 



NAMES OF OBJECTS AT HOME. 



DIRECTIONS. 

1. Look at the object about which you are going to write. 

2. Think about it. Select the best words. 

3. Arrange the sentence in your mind before you begin to write. 

4. Take care to write only what you know to be true. 

5. Write neatly and spell correctly. 

6. Begin each sentence with a capital letter. 

7. Use the period as directed in your oral lesson. 

Note. — The teacher will examine the work on your slate, or in your blank book, and if you have mis- 
spelled any words you will find them marked with the letter S ; the omission, or wrong use of capital 
letters, marked C ; the omission, or wrong use of punctuation, marked P ; an improper word, as to 
meaning or form, I. Re-write carefully, correcting all mistakes. 



II. NAMES OF OBJECTS AT HOME. 

2. Form sentences, using in each the name of some object which 
you see in the following picture, observing the directions already 
given. 

Ex. — The boy is playing with the kitten. 



NAMES OF OBJECTS AT HOME. 




OBJECTS SURROUNDING THE HOME. 



III. NAMES OF OBJECTS SURROUNDING THE HOME. 

3. Write in the same manner, as before, about the different objects 
in the following picture : 




• 



OBJECTS ASSOCIATED WITH THE CITY. 



IV. NAMES OF OBJECTS ASSOCIATED WITH THE CITY, 



4. Write sentences about the different objects seen in the following 
picture. 




Ex. — I see a tall steeple, far up the sheet. 

V. USE OF THE WORD and IN CONNECTING THE NAMES OF TWO OBJECTS 
WHEN THE SAME THING IS SAID OF BOTH. 

1. Write in one sentence that which- is expressed by each of the 
following couplets of sentences : 



CONNECTING THE NAMES OF OBJECTS. 



The girls can play. The horse eats corn. 

The boys can play. The cow eats corn. 

Squirrels live in the woods. 

Rabbits live in the woods. 

Ex. — The girls and the boys can play. 

2. Write two sentences, using the name of an object in each. 
Ex. — The boy runs. 

The dog runs. 

3. Say the same of both objects in one sentence, connecting the 
names with the word and. 

Ex. — The boy and the dog run. 

VI. USE THE WORD " AND" IN JOINING TWO ACTION WORDS. 

Complete the following by telling two things that each person, or 
animal can do : 

The horse A man 

A boy The parrot 

A girl The goose 

A Bird A scholar 

The cow ft . . . The teacher 

Ex. — The horse can eat and run. 



NAMES OF OBJECTS. 



LESSON II. 

2. Names of Objects, Distinguishing the Singular from the 

Plural Form. 



To the Teacher.— See Model Exercises, Lesson n. of the Manual. 

Exercises. 

Write the following name-words, changing each so that it shall 
mean more than one : 

1. Tailor, lion, bonnet, fork, town, sled, pupil, horse, arrow, desk, 
house, home, flock, son, king, cow. 

Exs. — Tailors, lions, &c. 

2. Boy, toy, day, alley, valley, key, tray, spray, volley, joy. 
Exs. — Volleys, sprays, &c. 

3. Box, church, fox, tax, inch, class, glass, coach, branch. 
Exs. — Boxes, churches, &c. 

4. Story, berry, cherry, duty, baby, fly, glory, mercy body, lily, 
fairy. 

Exs. — Stories, berries, &c. 

5. Change the following words so that each will mean more than 
one : Man, woman, child, goose, tooth, foot, ox, mouse. 

Exs, — Men, oxen, &c. 

6. Write name-words, denoting more than one, not found in the 
lists given above. 



NAMES OF OBJECTS. 



LESSON III. 
3. Names of Objects Used as Singular and Plural. 



To the Teachee — See Model Exercises, Lesson III. of the Manual. 

Exercises. 

i. names found in the exercises of the preceding lesson. 

Select the names from those that you have written in the last les- 
son, and write as follows : 

1. Four sentences, using a name and the word are. 
Ex. — The cows are in the field. 

2. Four sentences, using a name and the word were. 
Ex. — The children were on the play- ground. 

3. Four sentences, using a name and the word have. 
Ex. — Flies have wings and feet. 

4. Write sentences, using in each one or more of the following 
words, written so as to mean more than one. 



hat, 


apron, 


button, 


plate, 


coat, 


collar, 


ribbon, 


towel, 


slice, 


glove, 


cuff, 


ax, 


scarf, 


mitten, 


knife, 


glass, 


dress, 


pin, 


broom, 


brush, . 


fruit, 


mouse, 


church, 


cherry, 


cup, 


orchard, 


sheep, 


ox, 


pen, 


flower, 


farmer, 


bridge, 



Ex. — He gave me a pair of gloves. 



SENTENCES CONTAINING THE PLURAL FORM. 




LESSON" IV. 

4. Sentences Containing the Plural Form of the Verb, used 
with a Compound Subject. 



To the Teacher. — See Model Exercise, Lesson IV. of the Manual 



10 SENTENCES FORMED. 



Exercises. 

Write sentences, saying something of two different objects seen 
in the preceding picture, and connect the two names used by the 
word and. 

Ex. — The globe and books are on the shelf. 

In the same manner, write about other objects of which you may 
think. 

1. Use with the names connected, the word are. 
Ex. — The horse and cow are in the pasture. 

2. Use with the names connected, the word were. 
Ex. — Mary and her sister were glad to see me. 

3. Use the word have in the same manner. 

Ex. — The boy and girl have some new books to read. 



LESSON V. 



5. Sentences Formed, Containing Words Expressing where Ob- 
jects are, or the Position of Objects in Relation 
to one Another. 



To the Teacher.— See Model Exercise, Lesson V. of the Manual, 



I. objects as seen in the school-room, in pictures and elsewhere. 

Exercises. 
Write sentences, using in each the name of an object and one or 
more of the following words : 

1. In, on, under; inside, outside; above, below; far, near; be- 
side, beyond ; by. 

2. The words : before, after ; among, between ; from, towards ; 
out of, into; within, without; around, across; through, about; at, 
against. 



SENTENCES FORMED. 



11 



Exs. 1. — The book is in my desk. 

2. — John went around by the bridge. 
8. — Henry came across the field. 




3. Describe the position of objects in the picture. 
Ex. — The book lies on the desk. 



12 SENTENCES THAT DESIGNATE. 



LESSOR VI; 

6. Sentences, Containing Words that Designate the Parts of 

Objects. 



To the Teacher.— See Model Exercise, Lesson VI. of the Manual. 



Directions. — There are now five things which you must remem- 
ber when writing : 

1. To spell correctly. 

2. To use capital letters properly. 

3. To use the period. 

4. To use the right word with names meaning more than one. 

5. To use the comma to separate the parts of a sentence. 

Exercises. 

1. Name the parts of the following objects : Table, sled, barrel, 
chair, gate, plow, door, window, cart, shoe, kite, ox, rake. 

First, make a sentence for each part you name; then, join these 
sentences together, making one ; and separate the parts of this 
sentence by commas. 

Ex. — The table has a top. 

The table has four corners. 
The table ha3 four legs. 
The table has a top, four corners, and four legs. 
Directions. — Do the first work on your slate, and let the sen- 
tences in your -'Exercise Book" appear in the last form given in 
the example. 



SENTENCES FORMED. 



13 



LESSOK VII. 

7. Sentences Formed, Containing Words Describing the Forms 

of Objects. 



To the Teacher.— See Model Exercise, Lesson VII. of the Manual. 



LINES AND ANGLES. 




1. Straight lines. 4, 6. 

2. Crooked lines. 5. 

3. Curved lines. 7. 



Horizontal parallel lines. 
Vertical parallel lines. 
Oblique lines. 

Exercises. 



8. Eight angles. 

9. Acute angles. 
10. Obtuse angles. 



Write sentences, naming in each a different object, and use one 
or more of the following words : 



straight, 
crooked, 
curved, 



vertical, 
parallel, 
level, 



oblique, 

horizontal, 

uneven, 



right-angled, 
acute-angled, 
obtuse-angled. 



14 



SENTENCES FORMED. 




1. Triangles. 

2. Squares. 

3. Oblongs. 



4. Cube. 7. Pyramid. 

5. Cylinder. 8. Cone. 

6. Rectangular solid. 9. Frustum. 



WORDS EXPRESSING COLOR. 15 



2. Sentences, and use one of the following words, naming in 
each an object: 

triangle, cube, cone, edge, 

square, cylinder, frustum, surface, 

oblong, pyramid, corner, rectangular. 



LESSON VIII. 



8. Words Expressing Color, used in Sentences with Names op 

Objects. 



To the Teacher.— See Model Exercise, Lesson VIII. of the Manual. 



Exercises. 



1. Write sentences, telling the color of objects in the school- 
room. 

Ex.— My book has a blue cover. 

2. Write sentences, naming in each several objects that are of 
the same color. When the names of more than two objects are 
used in the same sentence, place a comma after each except the last. 

Ex. — The rose, the pink, and the verbena are red. 

3. Write sentences, telling in each the different colors of various 
objects of the same class. 

Ex. — Some apples are green, some are red, and some are yellow. 
When more than two colors are mentioned, place commas as in 
the example. 

4. Write sentences, describing in each an object, the parts of 
which are of different colors, or in which different colors are mingled. 

Exs. — 1. This flower has a green calyx and white petals. 

2. This lily is yellow with brown spots on its petals. 



16 REVIEW OF PRECEDING LESSONS. 



LESSON IX. 

I. Eeview of Preceding Lesssons, by Describing Single Objects 
in Respect to their Place, Form, Parts, and Color. 



To the Teacher.— See Model Exercise, Lesson IX. of the Manual. 



Exercises. 



1. Write a description of each of the following objects, telling 
the place, parts, form, and color : 

My slate. The chair. My kite. The map. 

My skates. The table. My doll. The window. 

My knife. My sled. My hoop. My hat. 

Ex. — My hat is on the hook in the closet 

It has a crown and a brim, and the crown has a band around it. 
The crown is round and the brim is wide and^/i. 
The color of the hat is brown, but the ribbon of which the 
band is made is black. - 

2. Write as you please about the following picture : 



REVIEW OF PREGEDWG LESSONS. 



17 




18 WORDS, EXPRESSING QUALITIES. 



CHAPTER II. 



Words, Expressing Qualities Apprehended by the Senses, Used 
in Describing Objects. 

LESSON X. 
10. SENTENCES formed, containing words expressing qualities 

OF OBJECTS APPREHENDED BY THE SENSE OF SIGHT. 



To the Teacheb.— See Model Exercises, Lesson X. of the Manual. 



Exercises. 



1. Express, in writing, the qualities that may be learned of an ob- 
ject by seeing it. 

Exs. — Pure water is transparent and colorless. 
Ink is a dark, opaque, colored fluid. 

Directions. — Fill the following blanks with words expressing qual- 
ities learned by seeing, and if more than two qualities are named, sep- 
arate the words expressing these qualities by commas, as in the ex- 
ample : 

1. The window glass is 

2. My writing paper is 



WORDS EXPRESSING Q UALITIES. 1 9 

3. The girl wore dress. 

4. That tree is 

5. I saw a bird. 

6. He gave me apple. 

7. Gold is metal. 

8. He carried cane. 

2. Describe objects, using terms expressing qualities learned in 
the same way. 

Direction. — Notice that you have not only to think and write of 
the parts, form, and color of objects, as before, but of other qualities; 
as, clean, transparent, bright, &c. 

1. Write about different objects, using one or more of the follow- 
ing words : Bright, clear, clean, pretty, straight, crooked, dull, 
sparkling, limpid. 

Ex. — The water in the'mountain stream is bright and clear. 

2. Write one or more objects, and use the words : Old, withered, 
handsome, brilliant, new, transparent, opaque, porous, useful. 

Exs. — The grass and flowers are withered by the frost. 

The autumn leaves are brilliant with bright colors. 



20 SENTENCES FORMED. 



LESSON XI. 

11. Sentences Formed, Containing Words Expressing Quali- 
ties of Objects Apprehended by the uses of Touch 
and Hearing. 



To the Teacheb— See Model Exercise, Lesson XI. of the Manual. 



Exercises. 



Directions. — 1. Learn all that you can of things by touching, 
and by hearing, and then, name the qualities. 
2. Use the comma as already directed. 

I. By Touching. 
Fill the following blanks with words expressing qualities learned by 
touching : 

1. The cloth is 

2. Iron is 

3. My skin is 

4. Snow is 

5. Silk is 

6. Feathers are . . . . . s 

7. Marble is 

8. The cloth of my coat 

9. My desk is 

10. The stone 



SENTENCES FORMFD. 21 



2. Write five sentences, using in each one or more of the follow- 
ing words : warm, dry, hard, rough, stiff, cold, wet, soft, smooth, 
even, uneven, heavy, cool, light, thick. 

Ex. — This piece of cloth is thick, soft, and smooth. 

II. By Hearing. 

1, Fill the following blanks with words expressing qualities, as- 
certained through the sense of hearing. 

E x. — The voice of my mother is kind, pleasant, and cheerful. 

1. The school bell rings 

2. The whistle of the locomotive is . . ' " 

3. The barking of a dog is 

4. The singing of a canary is 

5. The noise of the moving cars 

6. The report of a gun 

7. The noise of thunder 

8. The wind among the trees 

9. The sound of running water 

10. The different tones of the human voice are 



2. Write five sentences, using in each one or more of the follow- 
ing words : noisy, harsh, loud, low, faint, shrill, hissing, musical, 
deafening, soothing, sweet, sad, Joyous cheerful, 



22 



SENTENCES FORMED. 




LESSON XII. 

12. Sentences formed, containing words expressing qualities 
apprehended by tasting and smelling. 



To the Teacher.— See "Suggestions," Lesson XII. of the Manual. 



Exercises. 



1. Learn and name the qualities perceived by tasting and smell- 
ing, and fill the blanks in the following : 



SENTENCES FORMED. 23 



1. Oranges are 

2. Vinegar is 

3. Pepper is 

4. Cloves are 

5. Cinnamon is 

6. Lemons are 

7. Strawberries are 

8. Tea is 

9. Pure water is 

Ex. — Some oranges are fragrant and sweet to the taste. 

2. Write five sentences, telling in each what you have learned of 
an object by tasting, and use in each sentence, one or more of the fol- 
lowing words : Sour, sweet, bitter, salt, spicy, incipid, tasteless, pun- 
gent, peppery, juicy, agreeable, pleasant, unpleasant. 

Ex. — I like juicy, sour apples. 

3. Write five sentences, using in each, one or more of the follow- 
ing words : fragrance, fragrant, odor, odorous, perfume, perfumed, 
disagreeable, pleasant, aromatic, rancid, siveet, sour. 

Exs. — Aromatic spices are brought from distant countries. 
The nutmeg is an aromatic spice. 

Directions. — 1. Describe an object, telling, first, what you learn 
of it by seeing, then by hearing, feeling, tasting and smelling. 

2. Put together in as few sentences as you can what you learn by 
one sense, before you tell what you learn by another. 

3. Such divisions in a composition form paragraphs. 

4. Begin each paragraph of your composition at the left-hand mar- 
gin of your book, as in the example given below : 

An Apple. 
The apple is round, and has a short stem. 



24 



SENTENCES FORMED. 



The skin of the apple is red, the pulp is white, and the stem and 
seeds are brown. 

It is smooth and mellow, and it has a sour taste. 
It has little fragrance, but is pleasant to the smell. 

In the same way, describe some of the following objects : 
An orange. A pear. Tomatoes. 

A peach. A plum. Grapes. 

Strawberries. Cherries. Currants. 



LESSON XIII. 



13. Sentences formed, containing words expressing qualities 
ascertained through the senses aided by experiment. 



To the Teacher.— See Model Exercises, Lesson XHI. of the Manual. 



Observations. — You have tried to bend a wire and found that it 
bent more or less easily, and you have thus learned that it inflexible. 

The quality which allows it to bend is called flexibility . 

You might not be strong enough to bend a large wire that a man 
could bend. 

There are wires so large that great weights are required to bend them 

You have, perhaps, seen them on bridges, which they help to sup- 
port. 

The great weight binds but does not break them ; they are, there- 
fore, flexible. 



SENTENCES FORMED. 25 

It has been found by many trials, that wires, large and small, are 
more or less flexible. 

You have also found, in trying to bend small sticks, that instead of 
bending, they broke readily ; thus showing that they were brittle. 

That quality of things which allows them to be easily broken is 
called brittleness. 

By further trial or experiment you would find that many kinds of 
wood are flexible. 

Small sticks of some kinds of wood, can be bent almost as much as 
wire without breaking. 

You have found that a piece of whale-bone when bent, as the wire, 
did not, like it, remain so, but sprang back to its former position ; and 
that a ball thrown to the floor bounded back, and thus you learned 
that these are elastic. This quality in objects we call elasticity. 

If you experiment in this way with many of the different kinds of 
wood, in suitable shapes, you will find that some of these are elastic 
as well as flexible. 

And so we might go on trying and experimenting, and by this means 
continue to learn other qualities of objects. 

Definitions. 

1. When one substance adheres or sticks to another substance it. 
is-adhesive. 

Ex. — The chalk sticks to the black-board ; it is adhesive. 

2. Substances that can be drawn out into wire or thread are 
ductile. 

Ex. — Glass when heated can be spun into fine threads ; glass is 
made ductile by heating. 

3. Substances that can be dissolved in liquids are soluble. 
Ex. — Camphor dissolves in alcohol ; it is soluble. 

4. Substances that will take fire are combustible. 



26 SENTENCES FOBMED. 



Ex. — Oil is combustible. 

5. Substances which take fire easily are inflammable. 

Ex. — Kerosene is very inflammable. 

9. Substances which melt by heating are fusible. 

Ex. — Lead melts when heated ; it is fusible. 

7. Bodies enlarge or expand when heated. 
Ex. — Iron is expansible. 

8. Substances that can be drawn out and made thin by beating 
are malleable. 

Ex. — Grold may be beaten into very thin plates ; it is malleable. 

9. Substances not easily pulled to pieces have the quality of te- 
nacity. 

Ex. — Linen has tenacity. 

Exercises. 

1. By experiment find out and state what objects or substances 
are flexible, elastic, adhesive, soluble, fusible, tough, brittle, tenacious, 
heavy, light, stiff, absorbent, and tell how you learn they have these 
qualities. 

Ex. — By bending my whip-stock I find that it is flexible. 

2. Compare objects or substances that have opposite qualities. 

Exs. — ( Leather is tough. ( Lead is heavy. 

\ Glass is brittle. ( Cork is light. 

Or, ( Leather is tough*, but glass is brittle. 

I Lead is heavy, but cork is light. 

Directions. — 1. Observe that here, as elsewhere, when we join 
the two sentences to make one, we separate the parts of the sentence, 
so formed, by a comma. 

2. You will also observe that we have connected the two parts 
that express opposite qualities by the word but instead of the word 
and. 



SENTENCES GIVING THE USE OF THE OBJECTS. 27 

3. Compare objects or substances having like qualities. 
Exs. — Sugar and salt are soluble. 

India-rubber and whale-bone are elastic. 

4. Write about the following objects, telling what you have learned 
of them, and how you have learned it : 

A piece of lead. A piece of cork. 

A piece of wax. . A piece of India-rubber. 

A lump of sugar. A sheet of paper. 

A lump of salt. A sponge with water. 

A piece of cake. A sheet of blotting-paper. 

Ex. — I find that the piece of lead is malleable, fusible, and when 
thin, is quite flexible. I can easily cut it with my knife. 



LESSON XIV. 



14. Sentences, giving the use of the objects or substances 

NAMED. 

Observations. — It is only after we have learned the qualities of 
things, that we understand their true uses. 

Qualities suggest uses ; so that having learned the former you will 
have little difficulty in pointing out the latter. 

Direction. — Bear in mind the instruction given for the use of the 
comma. 



28 REVIEW OF THE LAST FIVE LE880N8. 

Exercises. 

Write sentences mentioning some use of each of the following ob- 
jects, and the quality upon which such use depends : 

wood, chalk, salt, water, 

leather, steel, horn, flax, 

silver, lead, glass, putty, 

iron, cotton, wool, clay. 

Ex. — Grlass is used for windows because it is transparent. 

Observe that you have stated a,fact and given a reason for it. 



LESSON XV. 
15. Review of the last five lessons. 



To the Teacheb.— See Model Exercises, Lesson XV. of the Manual. 



Exercises. 

1. Describe the following objects : 

A lemon, A bunch of raisins, 

A walnut, A cluster of grapes, 

A cocoanut, A watermelon, 

A pineapple, The fruit you like best. 

Example. 
Candy. 
The sticks of candy are long and round, and they are all of the 
same length and size. The colors of the candy are red and white. 
It is smooth and hard, and has a sweet taste and a pleasant odor. 
It dissolves in the water, melts when heated on the stove, burns 
if it is thrown into the fire, and is easily broken. 



THE QUESTION MARK OR POINT OF INTERROGATION. 29 

LESSON XVI. 
16. The question mark or point of interrogation. 

Observations. — We often desire to know about things at a distance 
from us. Such knowledge cannot be obtained by our senses, or by- 
experiment, but must be obtained through accounts given us by 

ochers. 

This knowledge is often gained from books and papers, and some- 
times by means of letters. 

But very often we are curious to know more than is told us in these 
ways, and we try to have our curiosity satisfied by ashing questions. 

When we ask questions by writing we place after each question this 
mark [?]. 

It is called a question mark, or interrogation point. 

It is placed after each sentence in which a question is asked. Such 
sentences are called interrogative sentences. 

The sentences which you have formed in describing objects, and 
after-which you have placed a period, declare, or tell, something of 
the object. 

Such sentences are called declarative sentences. 

Exercises. 

1. Write sentences asking questions about things which others 
have seen, but you have not, and punctuate properly. 

Ex. — What kind of trees are found in California ? 

2. Answer the following questions so as to form a short compo- 
sition. 

1. What kind of fruit do you like best ? 

2. Where does it grow ? 

3. How does it taste when green ? 

4. How .does it taste when ripe ? 

5. Of what shape is the ripe fruit ? 



30 



THE QUESTION MARK OR POINT OF INTERROGATION. 



6. Of what color is it ? 

7. How can it be best preserved ? 

8. How best prepared for food ? 

9. What else can you tell about ? 

3. Look carefully at the following picture and write about all 
that you see in it, and express all that it seems to say to you. 




REVIEW OF DIRECTIONS FOR WRITING. 31 

LESSON XVII. 
17. Review of directions for writing. 

1. Every sentence should begin with a capital letter. 

2. The period should be used after every declarative sentence. 

3. The interrogation point should be used after every sentence in 
which a question is asked. 

4. The comma should be used in place of words omitted, when 
more than two sentences are united in one simple sentence. 

5. The comma should be used after each name, except the last, 
when the same thing is said of more than two objects named in one 
sentence. 

6. The comma should be used to separate words that express qual- 
ity, when the different woids refer to the same thing. 

Examples. 

1. To write well is a fine art. 

2. We should speak the truth at all times. 

3. Do you like to study ? 

4. The boy can read, spell, and write. 

5. The man. his wife, and a child were saved. 

6. The colors of the rainbow are red, orange, yellow, green, blue, 
indigo, and violet. 

Exercises. 

4. Write about anything that you choose and observe all of the 
above directions. 



CHAPTER III. 



Suitable terms taught — use of names as common and proper — 
use of possessive sign — use of personal pronouns. 

LESSON XVIII. 

18. Introductory exercises for teaching terms designating 
classes of words already used. 

How to use names of objects, some meaning one object, and some 
meaning more than one, has already been learned. 

For convenience in the exercises that are to foil ow, it is necessary 
to remember three things of these name-words : 

1. That all names are called nouns. 

2. That all names that denote but one are said to be of the sin- 
gular number. 

3. That all names that denote more than one are said to be of the 
plural number. 

Exercises. 

Now, that we may be sure that you understand what has just been 
said, you may take from the following selections. 

1. Ten nouns of the singular number, and write, first the singu- 
lar, then the plural form of the noun selected. 

2. Select five nouns of the plural number, aud write, first, the 
plural, then the singular form of the noun selected. 



STRIKE THE KNOT. 33 



STKIKE THE KNOT. 



" Strike the knot/' said a gentleman one day to his son, who, tired 
and weary, was leaning on his ax over a log which he had been trying 
to cleave. 

Then looking at the log, the gentleman saw how the boy had hacked 
and clipped all around the knot without hitting it. Taking the ax, 
he struck a few sharp blows on the knot and split the log without 
difficulty. Smiling, he returned the ax to his son, saying, " Always 
strike the knot." 

That was good advice. It is as good for you, my children, as it 
was for the boy to whom it was first given. It is a capital maxim to 
follow when you are in trouble. Have you a hard sum to do at school? 
Have you got to face a difficulty ? Are you leaving home to live for 
the first time among strangers ? Look your trouble in the eye, as the 
bold lion hunter looks in the face of the lion. Never shrink from a 
painful duty, but step right up to it and do it. Strike the knot, boys 
and girls, and you will always conquer your difficulties. 



34 NAMES USED AS PROPER AND COMMON 



LESSON XIX. 
19. Names used as proper and common. 



To the Teacheb.— See Model Exercises, Lesson XIX. of the Manual. 



• Directions. — You have learned and practiced one rule for the use 
of the capital letter, and are now ready to use the second ; but, be- 
fore doing so, you may learn the following definitions and rules : 

Definition. — All names applied to the individuals of a class are 
common names, or common nouns. 

Exs. — Boy, booh, tree. 

Def. — All names which denote some particular person, place, or 
thing, are proper names or proper nouns. 

Exs. — John, Maine, Wednesday. 

Rule I. — Every sentence should begin with a capital letter. 

Ex. — We are thankful for this bright, beautiful day. 

Rule II. — Every proper name, and each word forming the chief 
part of a proper name, should begin with a capital letter, 

Ex. — Mary and Ella went to New York to visit Central Park, and 
on their return sailed up the Hudson as far as Albany. 

Exercises. 

1. Write five sentences, using in each a common and a proper 
noun. 

Ex. — My Uncle lives in Chicago. 

2. Write five sentences, using in each a noun which is the name 
of a person. 

Ex. — I met James and his sister Mary. 



USE OF THE POSSESSIVE SIGN. 35 

3. Sentences, using in each two proper nouns, one the name of a 
person, the other, the name of a city. 

Ex. — The poet Milton was born in London. 

4. Sentences, using in each & proper noun which is the name of a 
state or country. 

Ex. — We live in the United States, a country of North America. 

5. Sentences, using in each the name of some river, lake, sea, or 
ocean. 

Ex. — The Mississippi river rises in Lake Itasca, and flows into the 
Gulf of Mexico. 

6. Sentences, using in each the name of some day of the week, or 
of some month of the year. 

Ex. — The surrender of Vicksburg took place on Sunday, July the 
4th, 1863. 



LESSON XX. 



20. The use of the possessive sign with the singular and sin- 
gular AND PLURAL FORM OF NOUNS. 



To the Teacher— See Model Exercise, Lesson XX. of the Manual. 



Direction. — Observe the following groups of words, or phrases 

1. The voice of the teacher. 

2. The songs of the birds. 

3. The sports of the children. 



-36 USE OF TEE POSSESSIVE SIGN. 

These sentences may be changed in form, and with the use of the 
apostrophe, or possessive sign, express the same idea ; as, — 

1. The teacher's voice. 

2. The birds' songs. 

3. The children's sports. 

By the aid of the following rules, both forms may be practiced, and, 
then, either mode of expression used as seems most pleasing. These 
different forms give variety to our language and thus adds to its 
beauty and force. 

Kule I. — To write a singular noun so as to denote by the form 
that something is owned, or possessed, place after it the apostrophe 
and the letter s. 

Ex.— This is Susan's book. 

Kule II. — To write a plural noun ending with the letter s, so as 
to show by the form that something is owned, or possessed, add the 
apostrophe only. 

Ex. — The boys' playground is shaded with trees. 

.Rule III. — To write a plural noun not ending with the letter s, so 
as to show by the form that something is owned or possessed, add the 
apostrophe and the letter s. 

Ex. — The gentlemen's hats were left in the hall. 

Exercises.- 

1. Express the simple idea of possession by a phrase without the 
use of the apostrophe. 

Exs. — The bark of a dog. The leaves of the trees. 

The books belong to John. Days of the week. 

2. Write sentences, using in each a singular noun, showing pos- 
session, by the use of the apostrophe, or possessive sign. 

Ex. — John's books are new. 



NOUNS OF THE THIRD PERSON. 37 

3. Sentences, using in each a plural noun ending with the letter 8, 
and denoting ownership or possession by the use of the apostrophe. 

Ex. — The girls' dresses were neat and clean. 

4. Sentences, using in each & plural noun not ending in s, and de- 
noting possession by the use of the apostrophe. 

Ex. — The men's property was destroyed by fire. 



LESSON XXI. 



21. Nouns of the thikd person, and their corresponding pro- 
nouns. SINGULAR AND PLURAL. 



To the Teacher.— See ModelExercise, Lesson XXI. of the Manual. 



Directions. — 1. G-ive attention to the story as given in the fol- 
lowing forms, that you may learn from it more of the use of the pro- 
nouns about which you have just been taught. 

First Form. 

Once, a little boy started, early, to school, but the boy played on the 
way, and so was late. The teacher was grieved, and said to the boy : 
" The teacher thinks that the boy will have to stay after school to 
make up the study time the boy has lost/' But the boy seemed so 
sorry and studied the boy's lesson so well that the teacher forgave him, 
and the boy thanked the teacher. The boy and the teacher then went 
home together, and this was pleasant for the boy and the teacher. 



38 NOUNS OF THE THIRD PERSON 

Second Form. 

Once, a little boy started early to school, but he played on the way, 
and so he was late. The teacher was grieved and said to him : " I 
think that you will have to stay after school to make up the study 
time you have lost." But he seemed so sorry, and studied his lesson 
so well that she forgave him, and he thanked her. 

They, then, walked home together, which was pleasant for them. 

2. Observe that the pronouns used in the ''Second form" take the 
place of the nouns in the "First form?' 

That in place of the names of the persons spoken of; as, "boy" and 
" teacher," we have used the pronouns "he," "him," "his," "her" 
and " them." 

That in place of the person speaking, we have used the pronoun 

U J" 

In place of the person spoken to, the pronoun " you." 

8 * Kemember the following definition, .and rule for the use of the 
pronoun : 

Definition. — A pronoun is a word that takes the place of a noun. 

Rule I. — Use the pronouns he, his, him, she, her, hers, it, its, they, 
their, theirs, them, instead of the names of persons or things spoken 
of, after these names have been used at least once. 

Exercises. 

1. Write sentences, using in each one of the pronouns he, his, and 
him, and the noun which it represents. 

Ex. — If a boy is studious he will learn. 

2. Sentences, using in each, one of the pronouns she, her, and hers, 
and the noun which it represents. 



NOUNS OF THE FIRST AND SECOND PERSON 39 

Ex. — Mary lost her book as she was coming to school. 

3. Sentences, using in each one of the pronouns they, their and 
them, and the noun which it represents. 

Ex. — The boys have finished the work which they began yesterday. 

4. Sentences, using in each the pronoun it or its. 

Ex. — The lark is a singing bird, and it sings as it rises in the air. 



LESSON XXII. 



22. Nouns of the first and second person, and their corres- 
ponding PRONOUNS, SINGULAR AND PLURAL. 

ADDITIONAL RULES FOR THE USE OF THE PRONOUNS. 

Rule II. — Use the pronouns you, your, and yours, instead of the 
persons spoken to. 

Rule IIL« — Use the pronouns I, we, my, mine, our, ours, me, and 
us, instead of the names of the persons speaking. 

Exercises. 

1. Write sentences, using in each the pronoun you, your or yours, 
and the name of the person spoken to. 

Place a comma after the name of the person addressed, or spoken 
to, as in the example. 

Ex. — James, you may bring your sister's book. 

2. Write sentences, using in each the pronoun 2, my, mine, or 
me. 



40 SENTENCES FORMED. 



Ex. — / studied my lesson, and then read the book that was given 
to me. 

3. Write sentences, using in each the pronoun we, our, ours, or 
us. 

Ex. — We love those who are kind to us. 

4. Sentences, using in each, a noun and a pronoun. 



LESSON XXIII. 
23. Sentences formed, containing relative pronouns. 



To the Teacheb.— See Model Exercises, Lesson XXLLL of the Manual. 



Exercises. 



1. Change the form of the following sentences so as to use*in^each 
one of the pronouns who, whose, whom, which, and that. 
Ex. — This is the man, and he came into the city to-day. 
This is the man who came into the city to-day. 

1. The boy came to school yesterday, and the same boy is absent 
to-day. 

2. We loved these friends, and they have left us. 

3. That is the girl, and I have her pencil. 

4. I tended some plants carefully, and those plants yielded the 
finest flowers. 

5. This is the bird, and I heard this bird sing. 



SENTENCES FORMED. 



41 



2. Write sentences, using in each the name of a person and the 
pronoun who or whom. 

Exs. — The pupil who is dilligent will improve. 
The man whom you met is my friend. 

3. Sentences, using in each a noun and the pronoun whose. 
Ex. — The girl whose brother I saw was glad to hear from him. 

4. Sentences, using in each a noun and the pronoun that or which. 

Exs. — The roses that I gathered were wet with dew. 

Trees which have many leaves bear but little fruit. 




CHAPTER IV. 



LESSON XXIV. 
24. Composition of sentences. 

To the Teacher.— See model exercise, Lesson XXIV. of the Manual. 

Direction. — The following statements and definitions should be 
studied and memorized. 

1. The subject of a sentence denotes that of which something is 
said. 

2. The predicate is that part of a sentence which says something 
of the subject. 

3. Every sentence has at^least one subject and one predicate. 

4. A subject combined with & predicate is called & proposition. 

5. The subject is not always expressed; as, come to me ; that is, 

you come to me, or come you to me. 

• 
Exercises. 

I. Supply predicates or subjects in the following, and thus com- 
plete the propositions : 

1. The ostrich 

2. The robin 

3. . The blue-bird 



COMPOUND SENTENCES. 43 

4. The wren 

5. The peacock 

6 live in the woods. 

7 lives in warm countries. 

8 is found in Africa. 

9 is a singing bird. 

10 is the emblem of our country. 

II. Construct two propositions under each of the following : 

1. Expressing simply the being of persons and things ; as, The 
boy is. The flowers are. 

2. Expressing what persons or things are ; as, The earth is a 
planet. The man is a farmer. 

3. Expressing what persons or things do ; as, Children play at 
recess. The bird sings. 

4. Denying something of persons or things ; as, I cannot go with- 
out you to-day. The book is not lost. 

5. Asking something about persons or things ; as, 7s my work 
well done ? Is he at home ? 



LESSON XXV. 
25 Compound sentences. 



To the Tbachbb.— See Model Exercise Lesson XXV. of the Manual. 



Directions. — Remember the following : 

1. A sentence is a proposition, or two or more united propositions, 
followed by a full pause. 



44 COMPOUND SENTENCES. 

2. The word and is used to unite propositions that are not opposed 
or contrasted, but similar in meaning ; as, The sun had set and a 
storm was gathering in the west, and the darkness increased. 

3. Instead of repeating the connective as in the example above, we 
may use it only between the last two propositions ; as, The sun had 
set, a storm was gathering in the west, and the darkness increased. 

4. That propositions so united must be set off by commas, as in 
the example above. 

5. The words but, or, nor, with a few other words and groups of 
words, not so frequently used, unite propositions opposed, or in some 
way contrasted in meaning ; as, fC Eagles go alone, but Utile birds go 
in flocks." He will do his duty, or he will perish in the attempt. 

6. These opposed or contrasted propositions are separated by 
commas,. 

7. Nor is often used with neither, and or with either, to unite 
propositions ; as, 

He will neither go, nor send for it. 
I will either go, or send for it. 

8. Sometimes two or more propositions are written in one sentence 
without a connecting word, the propositions separated by a semicolon; 
as, It is good to make friends; it is better to keep them. 

Exercises. 

1. Construct sentences, containing two or more propositions united by 
and. 

Ex. — The cony is a timid animal, and seeks shelter among the 
rocks. 

2. Sentences, containing propositions united by but. 
Ex. — The peacock has a gay plumage, but it cannot sing. 

3. Sentences, containing propositions united by or, nor, &c. 



SENTENCES WITH WORDS EXPRESSING MANNER. 45 

Ex. — Our bird must be fed, or it will suffer from hunger. 

4:. Sentences, containing two or more propositions without connect- 
ing words. 

Ex. — Others have labored for us ; we must labor for others. 

5. Describe some object assigned by the teacher, uniting in any of 
these ways the propositions used. 



LESSON XXVI. 



26. Sentences with words expressing the manner, time, and 

place of action. 



To the Teacher— See Model Exercise, Lesson XXVI. of the Manual. 



Directions. — In expressing your thoughts, you have learned to 
form single propositions, or simple sentences, then to unite these sim- 
ple sentences into wholes, or compound sentences. 

You have thoughts, for the proper expression of which, a different 
kind of sentences is required. 

When you think of objects as being or doing something, you will 
want to tell what, when, how, why, or by what means the thing is or 
is done. 

For example, I say : The bird sings. You ask : " How does the 
bird sing ?" I reply : The bird sings sioeetly. 

Again I say : The boy learns. You ask : " What does the boy 
learn ?" " Where does he learn ?" " When does he leaan,?" 

I may reply : He learns his lesson. He learns at school. He 
learns now. 



46 SENTENCES WITH WORDS EXPRESSING MANNER. 

You can easily understand that in these sentences : "The bird sings 
sweetly." u The boy learns his lesson at school." " He learns notv ;" 
we have done more than make a simple statement, that something is 
or is done. 

You will observe that we have added words to tell how, what, where 
and when the action takes place. 

Exercises. 

1. Write sentences telling what is done. 
Ex. — The man drives a horse. 

2. Write sentences, containing words expressing action, and such 
words ; as, well, quickly, easily, fast, foolishly, neatly, probably, qui- 
etly, lazily, promptly, &c, telling how. 

Ex. — Mary sews neatly. 

3. Write sentences containing words expressing action, and such 
words ; as, early, soon, again, after, frequently, when, while, some- 
times, often, always, immediately, &c, telling when. 

Ex. — The girls will come early. 

4. Write sentences, containing words expressing action, and such 
words ; as, her% there, wherever, everywhere, ashore, far, away, 
somewhere, abroad, &c, telling ivhere. 

Ex. — He will come ashore. 

5. Write sentences comparing the manner in which two persons 
perform the same act. 

Ex. — James studies well, but Henry studies better. 

6. Write sentences comparing the way in which three or more per- 
sons perform the same act. 

Ex.— Mary writes well, Ella writes better, but Lizzie writes best. 

7. Write sentences, expressing in each three different ways of per- 



SENTENCES EXPANDED. 47 

forming the same act, using such words ; as, soon, sooner, soonest, 
late, later, latest; often, qftener, oftenest; well, better, best; rudely, 
more rudely, most rudely ; friendly , more friendly , most friendly . 

Ex. — Minnie spoke earnestly, Jennie spoke more earnestly, but 
Frank spoke most earnestly. 



LESSON XXVII. 



27. Sentences expanded by adding modifying words to the 

SUBJECT. 



To the Teacher.— See Model Exercises, Lesson XXVH. of the Manual. 



Directions. — In the preceding exercises you have expanded your 
sentences by adding words to the predicate telling when, how, where, 
&c. 

You may expand them still more : By adding words to the subject 
telling what kind; as, 

The studious boy learns rapidly. 
The diligent boy learns many things. 
2. Or you may point out more exactly which boy is meant ; as, 
This boy learns his lessons. 
That boy learns easily. 
My boy learns at school. 
8. Or tell how many; as, 

Five boys are at play in the yard. 



48 PHRASES AND THEIR USE IN SENTENCES. 

Exercises. 

I. Expand the following propositions by adding to the words tell- 
ing what hind, or which : 

I. flowers grow on the hill-sides. 

2 stars are bright at night. 

3 boys are fond of play. 

4 passed that way. 

5 man will be trusted. 

6 boy will be a delight to his parents. 

Ex. — Wild flowers grow on the hill-sides. 

II. Write sentences, using in each two or more of the following 
words, telling : 

1. What persons ought to be ; as, cheerful, busy, kind, industri- 
ous, faithful, trusty, honest, generous, diligent, careful, good, grate- 
ful, brave, useful, agreeable. 

2. What persons ought not to be; as, unkind, idle, cross, lazy, 
peevish, discontented, roving, stubborn, careless, heedless, fretful, un- 
generous, unthankful, forgetful, disobedient. 



LESSON XXVIII. 

28. Phrases and their use in sentences. 

You have learned that a collection of words, consisting of subject 
and predicate, form a "proposition or simple sentence. There are 
other combinations of words which express meaning without a predi- 



PHRASES AND THEIR USE IN SENTENCES. 49 

cate ; as, In the morning, by the river, to play ball, &c. These and 
similar combinations are called phrases. 

These phrases are used as single words are used, to tell what, where, 
when, how, why, &c. 

Exercises. 

I. Use the following phrases to tell what or whom : 

1. Of the fields. 4. To sing for me. 

2. The man's friend. 5. To come home. 

3. Singing birds. 6. A large tree. 
Ex. — The flowers of the field are withered. 

II. Expand the following by using phrases to tell what : 

1. The man asked . . 

2. The fox is 

3. The children love 

4. Many persons are fond of 

5. The lion is 

6. He neglected 

Ex. — The man asked to see his friends. 

III. Use the following phrases to tell where : 

1. In the house. 4. By the river. 

2. At home. 5. Upon the playground. 

3. On the street. 6. In the bright sunshine. 
Ex. — He left his little sister in the house. 

TV. Complete the following by use of phrases telling where : 

1. Come with me 

2. Monkeys are found 

3. Beautiful flowers grow 



50 PHRASES AND THEIR USE IN SENTENCES. 

4. Apricots, figs and oranges grow 

5. James is staying 

6. Fruit trees are planted 

Ex. — Come with me into this beautiful garden. 

V. Use the following phrases to tell when : 

1. In the morning. 4. At tea time. 

2. After the refreshing rain. 5. Before going to school. 

3. When coming home. 6. While playing ball. 
Ex. — He left home in the morning. 

VI. Complete the following by the use of phrases telling when . 

1. Speak the truth 

2. He left 

3. Study diligently 

4. I came home 

5. The leaves put on their bright colors 

6 the ground is often covered with snow. 

Ex. — Speak the truth at all times, 

VII. Use the following phrase to tell how : 

1. In a kind manner. 4. By means of a rope. 

2. By persevering 5. In many ways. 

3. The earnest. 6. By diligent study. 
Ex. — We should always reprove in a kind manner. 

VIII. Complete the following by the use of phrases telling how 

1. He treated us '. . . . . 

2. We will return 

3. The angry waves dashed 

4. Birds build their nests 



GLAUSES AND THEIR USE IN SENTENCES. 51 

5. He recited 

6. Some rivers flow 

Ex. — He treated us with much politeness. 

IX. Use the following phrases to tell why, or for tvhat purpose : 

1. Of neglect. 4. For disobedience. 

2. For hearing. ■ 5. To see the country. 

3. To make others happy. 6. For his own pleasure. 
Ex. — His beautiful tree perished of neglect. 

X. Construct five sentences, each containing tivo or more phrases 
correctly used. 



LESSON XXIX. 
29. Clauses and their use in Sentences. 

You have learned to expand simple sentences by using first 
words, then phrases, to modify and extend their meaning. You may 
next expand the same by the use of propositions. 

Propositions when so used are called clauses; thus, in the sentence : 
He was glad when his friend came home, the two propositions, " He 
was glad," and " when his friend came home," each form but a part 
of the sentence, and each is called a clause. 

You may remember the following definition : 

Definition. — A clause is a proposition that forms but a part of a 
sentence. 



52 CLAUSES AND THEIR USE IN SENTENCES. 

Exercises. 

1. Complete the following by using clauses to tell what, which, who 
or whom : 

1. I have learned 

2. He gave me the beautiful rose 

3. The was here to-day. 

4. The dog knew 

5. He left the friends 

6 has returned to the city. 

Ex. — I have learned that he intends to return soon. 

II. Construct five sentences, using clauses as above. 

III. Complete the following, using clauses to tell when : 

1. The birds begin to sing 

2. I will take care of your books 

3. He will return 

4. , the dew disappears from the grass. 

5 • ,1 will return to school. 

6. Then, I will repay you. 

Ex. — The birds begin to sing when the sun rises. 
Or, When the sun rises, the birds begin to sing. 

IV. Construct five sentences containing clauses telling when. 

V. Complete the following, using clauses to tell ivhere : 
1. We sowed the seed 

2 the plants will grow best. 

3. We like best to be 

4 the country was very hilly. 

5 we call its source. 

6. The house was built 

Ex. — We sowed the seed where the ground was soft and moist. 



REVIEW LESSON DESCRIBING ANIMALS. 



53 



ts~yirxj~ 




LESSON XXX. 
30. Keview lesson describing animals. 



To the Teacher.— See Model Exercises, Lesson XXX. of the Manual. 



Directions. — Write about the following named animals, or about 
others in which you may be interested, telling : 

1. Where they are found. 

2. About their appearance, (size, form, color, &c). 

3. What they do. 

4. What kind of animal, (disposition, characteristics). 



54 REVIEW LESSON DESCRIBING ANIMALS. 

5. If useful, of what use. 

6. Relate something that you have heard or read about some 
par tic alar one. 

Exercises. 

Example. — Seuirhels. 

Some squirrels live in the woods, and some live on the prairie. 
Some live in holes which they find in the trees, and some live in holes 
which they make in the ground. 

They are pretty animals, with long, bushy tails and bright eyes. 
They are long and slender ; and some of them are grey,, some black, 
and some striped. 

They can run very fast up a tree or into their holes. In the 
spring they pull up the farmer's corn, and in the summer they gather 
nuts to eat in the winter. They hold a nut in their paws while they 
eat it. 

They are quick, active, interesting little creatures. I think that 
they are mischievous, because they pull up the farmer's corn ; and 
that they are industrious and careful, because, in the summer, they 
gather their food for the winter. 

Subjects. 

The cat, The ox, The hen, 

The dog, The hog, The goose, 

The horse, The sheep, The turkey, 

The cow, Thy rabbit, The duck. 

My dog, My horse, My cat, 

My pet, My pony, An old cow. 

Note.— The latter form of subjects will secure, from a single class, a greater variety of compositions 
than the other, and he very pleasing to the children. 



DESCRIPTION OF PLANTS. 55 

LESSON XXXI. 
31. Description of plants. 



To the Teacher— See Model Exercise, Lesson XXXI. of the Manual. 



Direction. — When you write about plants or trees, you may- ob- 
serve the order of the following points : 

1. Where they grow. 

2. Their size and form. 

3. Their foliage and flowers. 

4. Their fruit, its qualities and uses. 

5. Uses of plant or tree. 

This plan will help you in each composition; but, if after you have 
written your composition once, you think that by changing the order 
of its topics you can make it better, do so. If you think that by leav- 
ing out something you have said, or by adding something new, you 
can make it more interesting, do so. I am only trying to help you, 
and you may do as much better than I plan for you, as is possible. 

Exercises. 
Example. — The Apple Tbee. 

Apple trees grow in all parts of the world that have a temperate 
climate. 

They are found growing wild in the groves and forests, but more 
frequently in orchards and gardens where they are cultivated. 

They are of different sizes and shapes, but never grow so large as 



56 



COMPOSITIONS TELLING ABOUT PERSONS. 



the oak, maple, hickory and other forest trees. When cultivated, they 
have a short trunk with low spreading branches. 

Their foliage consists of small dark-green leaves of a firm texture. 
They blossom in the early spring-time. 

The flowers are fragrant, and of a white color, tinged with pink. 
The fruit of the wild-apple tree is small and sour. 

The fruit of cultivated trees is usually large and round, but there 
are many varieties. 

Some apples are sweet, others are sour ; and of each of these kinds 
some are much better than others. They differ in size, shape, color 
and taste. 

Apples are eaten raw, and are used for many different purposes in 

cooking. a, 

Subjects. 



Koses, 
Tulips, 
Pinks, 
Peonies, 



Asters, 
Larkspur, 
Hollyhock, 
Honeysuckle, 



The apple tree, 
The peach tree, 
The plum tree, 
The pear tree, 



Oak trees, 
Hickory trees, 
Pine trees, 
The grass. 



LESSON XXXII. 
32. Compositions telling about persons, 



To the Teachek — See Model Exercises, Lesson XXXII. of the Manual. 



Directions. — 1. Write about some boy or girl whom you know, 
telling : 



COMPOSITIONS TELLING ABOUT PERSONS. 57 

Outline for writing about persons. 

1. Where he or she lives. 

2. About his or her appearance. 

3. About his or her actions. 

4. About his or her character. 

Exercises. 

1. Write about some boy or girl whom you have known and remem- 
ber. 

2. About any person whom you know. 

3. About any person whom you have known and remember. 

Examples. 

1. Once, there was a boy who lived in the city with his mother, in a 
small brick house by the river. He was a little, slender boy, with 
blue eyes and brown hair. It was a sunshiny morning in spring, and 
Tommy felt glad it was so warm, and he was tired of staying in the 
house. He asked his mother if he might go out to play, and she said 
he might. He ran down the steps, and played marbles on the side- 
walk till his mother called -him, then he ran quickly into the house. 
Tommy was an obedient boy. 



\ 



CHAPTER IV. 



LESSON XXXIII. 

" 33. Description of inanimate objects. 

Direction. — Heretofore you have been assisted in your composition 
work by having questions asked you. Now, you are able to help your- 
selves, by asking your own questions. I will first lead you to under- 
stand how this can be done. I will give you a plan for a composition 
about Iron — a plan that will be equally good for all similar subjects. 
Each division, or topic, will be the subject of a paragraph, and the 
whole will be the outline of your composition. 

I. Outline for composition. 

1. Where found. How obtained. 

2. Its appearance. 

3. . If manufactured ; where, how. 

4. Qualities learned through the senses and by experimenting. 

5. Articles made from it. Other uses. 

Look at this outline and write the questions you might ask with 
reference to the first topic ; as, 

1. Where is it found ? How is it found ? Where do we get it ? 
How do we get it ? &c. 



DESCRIPTION OF INANIMATE OBJECTS. 59 

2. Some questions on the second topic ; as, 

Of what shape is it ? How large is it ? Is it light, or heavy ? Of 
what color is it ? &c. 

3. On the third topic ; as, 

Where, and how is it made ? From what is it made ? By whom 
is it made ? What articles are used in making it ? &c. 

4. On the fourth ; as, 

What more can be learned of it by seeing, feeling, hearing, or ex- 
perimenting ? 

5. The fifth; as, 
Of what use is it ? What things are made from it ? For what 
do we use these articles ? What else can be said about iron ? &c. 

Answer each of these questions in the order in which you have given 
them, and answer all of them. It may be necessary before you can 
answer all of these questions, that you learn more about the iron by 
reading about it, by asking other people about it, and by seeing 
and examining it for yourselves. Each time, before answering your 
questions, you must learn all that you can about the subject in any 
of these ways. After answering the questions, the first step in your 
composition will be to join together the sentences that can be put into 
one sentence ; the next, to arrange the paragraphs, and then to use 
the proper marks for punctuation. The last thing to be done, that 
all may be complete, is to look over the work carefully; and correct 
any mistakes found. 

In the same way, you may write about the following substances : 
gold, brass, coal, 

silver, copper, salt, 

lead, tin, glass. 



DESCRIPTION OF INANIMATE OBJECTS. 



II. Outline for composition on manufactured articles, con- 
structed OF DIFFERENT PARTS. 

1. Wherej and by whom manufactured. 

2. Of what materials. 

3. The different kinds. 

4. General appearance. 

5. Parts ; their form, size, color, &c 

6. Uses of the various parts. 

7. Its use as a whole. 

8. Any other information concerning it. 

Suppose that this is the outline for describing a wagon, and ask 
such questions ; as, 

Where was it made ? Who made it ? Is it made of wood, or of 
iron ? Is part of it made of one thing, and part of another ? Are 
there different hinds ? How does it look ? Which are the principal 
parts ? Is it all of the same color ? Of what use is each part ? Of 
what use is the whole ? What else do I know about it ? &c. 

Learn all you can about a wagon, and then answer these questions, 
as before. 

Subjects. 
A wagon, A school house, 

A carriage, A church building, 

A cooking stove, A railroad car, 

A wheelbarrow, A grain reaper, 

A street car, A sewing machine, 

A dwelling house, A printing press. 

Note.— After the subject is assigned, require the pupil to write out and hand in a list of questions, 
in the order of the outline given hirn. When it is brought in, indicate all the errors ; strike out need- 
less, or unsuitable questions ; suggest others more appropriate, and assist in the proper arrangement of 
the whole. Let the pupil have ample time for collecting information, and direct him in finding it. Do 
not hurry the work of composition. " Rome was not built in a day." 



COMPOSITIONS ABOUT PERSONS. 61 



LESSON XXXIV. 

34. Compositions about persons representing different occu- 
pations. 

Direction. — Children, in this exercise you are not required to ques- 
tion about, or to describe one particular person, but persons, rather, 
who follow some particular occupation or trade ; as, farmers, carpen- 
ters, merchants, &c. I will first give you the outline, and then you 
may prepare the questions, asking several on each topic, and then an- 
swering them as before. 

I. Outline of Composition. 
I. Where he lives ; where he works. 



2. 


General appearance, dress, 


&c. 




3. 


What he does ; how he does it. 




4. 


Materials and implements 


used. 




5. 


Characteristics. 






6. 


Anecdote or quotation. 








Subjects. 






The farmer, 




The sailor, 




The merchant, 




The blacksmith, 




The tailor, 




The soldier, 




The shoemaker, 




The saddler, 




The carpenter, 




The paper carrier, 



The school-boy, or school-girl. 

Example. 
The Farmer. 
The farmer lives in the country, sometimes near, and sometimes far 
away from a city. 



62 COMPOSITIONS ABOUT PERSONS. 

He works on his farm, which he either rents or owns. 

His clothes are not fine, because he does not need fine clothes for. 
such work as he does. 

In the springs-time he ploughs his fields, in which he plants all kinds 
of grains, which, when ripe, he carries to market, and either sells for 
money or exchanges for goods. 

In order to raise all trie grains, he uses various implements, such 
as, plough, reaper, threshing-machine, and others. 

The farmer is a kind, industrious and intelligent man. 

Otto Smith, District No. 3, 

Davenport, Iowa. 

II. Outline when writing about individuals. 

1. Appearance. 

2. Actions. 

3. Disposition or character. 

4. Our feelings toward them. 

5. Something related of them . 

Apply this outline to the following — 

Subjects. 
Our baby, My seat-mate, 

My little cousin, My sister's friend, 

The new scholar, My father's friend, 

The funny man, My best friend. 

In writing, you can if you choose, avoid giving the name of the per- 
son about whom you write ; this is often more pleasant. Write out 
a list of questions from this outline, as before. You may change the 
plan in any way, if, by so doing, you can make your composition any 
better. It is not the only outline that might be given, and is only 
intended to help you. You may improve it as much as you can. 



COMPOSITION ABOUT ANINALS. 



63 



LESSON XXXV. 

35. Composition about animals. 

Direction. — You may write about animals that do not live in this 
country, as well as about those that do ; and about those that you 
have* never seen. I will ask you to write about some animals that you 
learn of by seeing pictures, and by reading about them. 




64 COMPOSITION AB UT ANIMALS. 

Exercises. 
Outline when writing about animals. 

1. Where found. 

2. Different kinds. Form, size, color. 

3. Actions, or habits. 

4. Characteristics. 

5. Of what use to man. 

6. Anecdote. 

Ask such questions ; as, 

Where do they live ? Do they live in warm, or cold countries ? 
How many kinds are there ? Of what shape are they ? What is their 
color ? What can they do? How do they get their food ? Are they 
wild or tame ? Are they gentle, or fierce ? Are they useful to man? 
What have I heard, or read about them ? 

Subjects. 

The deer, The bear, The peacock, 

The goat, The lion, The canary, 

The fox, The tiger, The robin, 

The beaver, The elephant, The parrot, 

The monkey, The whale, The quail, 

The wolf, The trout, The eagle, 

The camel, The reindeer, The hawk. 

Animals that live in cold countries. 

Animals that live in warm countries. 

Animals that are useful to man. 

Animals that prey upon other animals. 

Honey-bees, flies, wasps, ants, frogs, toads, mosquitoes, spiders, 
bugs, butterflies. 



COMPOSITIONS ABO UT PLANTS. 65 



LESSON XXXVI. 

36. Compositions about plants. 

Exercises. 

Outline of composition on plants. 

1. Where they grow. 

2. Their parts, sizes, form, color. 

3. The different varieties. 

4. Their characteristics. 

5. Their uses. 

6. What they teach us ; or, something of their history. 

Subjects. 

A rose bush. Wheat while growing. 

A flower bed. A field of corn. 

A field of rice. Trees in spring. 

The cotton plant. Trees in autumn. 

The coffee plant. Wild flowers in spring. 

The tea plant. Wild flowers in autumn. 

The mulberry. My favorite tree. 

Leaves and fruit. My favorite flower. 

Note.— Some of these subjects can be described by answering the list of questions that the children 
have already prepared ; others will need a special list for eacb. 



DESCRIPTION OF PICTURES. 



LESSON XXXVII. 

37. Description of pictures. 

Direction. — Instead, now, of writing one composition about objects, 
another about animals, and so on, you may have for your subject 
something that will require you to speak of any, or of all of these in 
the same composition. You may select a picture from your book and 
use the following plan in describing it. You may first ask questions 
on each topic, then answer them in the form of a composition. 

Outline for description of a picture. 

1. The scene represented. 

Number and names. 
Position. 

2. Persons and objects. \ Appearance. 

Actions. 
Character. 

3. Thoughts suggested by the picture. 

4. Sometimes an appropriat^quotation. 

Example. — Composition describing a picture entitled 
Midsummer. 

This picture represents a scene in summer. In the center of the 
picture are men and women making hay. Some are raking the hay, 
while two of the men are pitching some of it to two others, who are 
on the top of the load, which is standing near. The horses are 
hitched to the wagon and stand very quietly, as if they were con- 
tented to rest as long as the farmer will let them. Two girls are 



DESCRIPTION OF PICTURES. 67 

_ 

sitting on a pile of hay, with a basket beside them. I think they 
have brought the lunch for the men and women who are at work. A 
dog is standing near them ; perhaps he thinks that some of the dinner 
is for him. 

At the right is the farmer's house, and in the distance, I see the 
church steeple just rising above the trees which surround it. The sky 
beyond is very beautiful, but there are some clouds near the horizon. 
I hope it will not rain until the farmer gets his hay into the barn. 

In front is a stream of water with a low bridge over it, and with 
many tall trees and beautiful flowers along its banks. A boy is sitting 
with his bare feet hanging down almost to the water. He is fishing 
with a rod and line, and is sitting very still, so as not to scare the fish. 

A little farther down the stream two girls are gathering flowers. 
One girl is scooping down to pick the flowers, while the other is hold- 
ing them in her hands and apron. 

I think the picture is a beautiful one. These people are industrious, 

and it seems as if they must be good and happy. I should like to be 

with them to help stir the new hay, or to fish in the clear brook, and 

gather the beautiful flowers. I am sure that these children are 

happy,— 

" Picking the violets 
Kissing their feet, 
Out in the country, 
Pleasant and sweet. 
Roaming through meadows 
Covered with dew ; 
Happier, children, 
Than monarchs, are you." 

You will often find it proper to close your compositions with 
selections of poetry. But you must be very careful to make selections 
that are suitable in every respect. They should convey the thoughts 
you wish to express, and in a way more agreeable than you will be able 
to do in 'your own words in prose. Notice that each line of poetry 



68 DESCRIPTION OF PICTURES. 

9 

begins with a capital letter. The group of lines corresponding, in a 
manner, to the paragraph in prose, is called a stanza. Notice, again, 
that the whole stanza is enclosed with two pairs of marks, one at 
the beginning, inverted commas, the other, at the close, double apos- 
trophe. The two pairs of marks, taken together, are called quotation 
marks. Now, I want you to learn the following,rules : — 

Kule. — Each line of poetry must begin with a capital letter. 

Rule. — All selections of prose and poetry used to form a part of 
one's own composition must be placed in quotation. 

II. Outline for description of a picture on the wall of 

THE SCHOOLROOM, OR AT HOME. 

1. Its size, shape, style of frame, &c. 

2. Kind of picture, painting, engraving, &c. 

3. The name or title. 

4. Appearance. 

5. Scene represented. 

6. Persons, objects, &c. 

7. By whom designed and executed. 

DESCRIPTION OF A PICTURE. 

The picture is rectangular in form and large in size. The frame is 
gilded to represent gold. It is an oil painting of a scene in Byron's 
Childe Harold. The name of it is, " The Dream of Arcadia." The 
objects represented are a temple, an idol covered with flowers, and a 
bridge over a large stream. On the bridge are two horses, one white, 
the other black, and on the horses are a man and a woman. Some 
children are gathering lilies by the stream, and in the distance is a 
high mountain. The appearance is very fine. The dark-green of the 
trees and the blue sky, with the clearness of the water, make the 
picture look very bean^'ful It was painted by my brother. 

G. GrILLET. 



MENTAL PICTURES. 69 



LESSON XXXVIII. 

38. Mental picture or pictures of the memory and 
imagination. 



To the Teachek.— See Model Exercises, Lesson XXX VTLI. of the Manual. 



Direction. — If you are told that I have a pretty garden, you are 
at once ready to tell me what is in it. You have not seen it, but you 
remember what you have seen in other gardens, and imagine what is 
in mine. You have a picture of it in your mind. Now, by writing 
one short word, I want to bring before your minds a picture with 
many things in it that are interesting to you. After I have given you 
the ivord, and you have studied your picture for a few moments, you 
may write what you see in it, and of some of the thoughts which it 
brings to your minds, or feelings which it produces. Let the word be 
home : and do you not see some or all of the following thoughts ? 
The house in which you live, father and mother, the children who are 
at home, the sitting-room, the parlor, the things in the rooms, the 
warm fire in the sitting-room, mother sewing, grandfather sitting by 
the fire, the baby playing on the carpet, with her playthings around 
her, and looking very happy ; books, pictures, maps, &c. Many 
thoughts and feelings arise as you see all these things, and you think, 
and how thankful I should be for my home. 

I should be kind to my parents, and try to help them. I should be 
kind to my brothers and sisters, and try to make them happy. 

From this you will understand that you can describe this picture of 
the mind in much the same way as the pictures which you saw in your 
book, or at home. 



70 DESCRIPTION OF MENTAL PICTURES. 



Outline for description of mental pictures. 

1. Location of scenes and objects. 

2. Description of persons and objects. 

3. Thoughts and feelings associated with the picture. 

Subjects. 

1. A garden in summer. 

2. Our school-room during study hours. 

3. Our play-ground at recess. 

4. My former home. 

5. My grandfather's house on last Christmas day. 

6. A home in the country. 

Example. — A garden. 

At the edge of a large city stood a pretty cottage. On one side of 
the cottage was a beautiful green lawn ; on the front and around the 
other side the most beautiful garden I ever saw. 

There were winding paths, bordered in some places by rows of 
beautiful roses, whose colors varied from the deepest velvety crimson 
to pink, the pale blush, and the purest white. 

Near the middle of the garden stood a large fountain, in the basin 
of which was a single clump of water-lilies, and the birds came to 
drink and bathe in the water ; the basin of the fountain was edged 
with pale blue forget-me-nots, with here and there a bunch of violets, 
always kept moist by the falling spray from the fountain. 

There were two little boys in the garden — one had blue eyes and 
golden hair, and the other had black eyes and hair ; they were trying 
to sail a little boat on the water. 



DESCRIPTION OF MENTAL PICTURES. 71 

In other places the paths were bordered by beds of tulips, day-lilies, 
sweet-williams, foliage-plants, verbenas, and showy geraniums. 

At the foot of an old pear tree, which had stood at the end of one 
of the paths for many years, was a cluster of lilies-of-the- valley, filling 
the air with their fragrance. 

One of the paths led to a rustic summer house, covered with 
clematis vines and the scarlet creeper. 

Other paths led to a rockery where ferns, woodbines, and other wild 
flowers grew in abundance. 

Scattered about on the side behind the cottage where several large 
lilac, snowball, and sweet-scented syringa bushes. 

This part of the garden was used for a croquet ground, and four 
children (two boys and two girls) were playing on it. 

In the shade of one of the lilac bushes, two little girls were sitting 
on the green grass watching the others. 

It was a lovely sight to see all the children playing together, lor 
they were benevolent and kind, and seemed so happy in each other's 
presence. 

Clara Decker. 




CHAPTER V. 



DESCRIPTION AND NARRATION. 



LESSON XXXIX. 



39. Description of localities and parts of country observed, 
and of countries represented by maps. 

Direction. — You may now write about places where you have lived, 
or which you may have visited, using the following outline : — 

I. Outline for description of places seen. 

1. The location. 

2. Surroundings. 

3. Parts or divisions. 

4. What is contained or produced. 

5. Objects of interest. 

6. Keminiscences, or things recollected. 

Subjects. 

Our school-grounds. My uncle's farm. 

Our home in the city. The town in which I live. 

Our farm in the country. The town I visited. 



NARRATION AND DESCRIPTION OF JOURNEYS. 73 

II. Outline for description of countries represented by maps. 

1. How situated. How surrounded. 

2. Natural divisions of the land surface. 

3. Principal mountains, rivers, and bodies of water. 

4. Natural curiosities. 

5. Productions ; natural and manufactured. 

6. Political divisions. Principal cities. 

7. Facilities for traveling. 

8. Places and objects of interest to the traveler. 

9. Manners and customs of the people. 
10. Something of its history. 



LESSON XL. 
40. Narration and description on journeys, real or imaginary. 

Direction. — For your next exercise in writing, you may tell about 
some journey that you have taken. It may have been only a short 
one ; no matter, you can find many things to say about it. 

If any one of the topics given is not needed in giving the account 
of you? journey, you can omit it, or you may change the plan in any 
other way that will better suit your purpose. 

I. Outline for giving an account of a journey taken. 

1. Time and place of starting. 

2. The place for which I started. 

3. The route taken. 



74 NARRATION AND DESCRIPTION OF JOURNEYS. 

4. The mode of conveyance. 

5. Description of country. 

6. Places passed through. 

7. Objects seen on the way. 

8. Arrival and reception. 

9. Incidents of travel. 
10. Keturn home. 

Subjects. 

1. A walk to and from school. 

2. A trip to gather wild flowers. 

3. A picnic excursion. 

4. A fishing excursion. 

5. A hunting excursion. 

6. A trip on the river. 
-7. Our trip for nuts. 

8. A sleigh-ride. 

9. My visit to the country. 

10. A visit to a relative living at a distance. Any other journey 
you may have taken. 

In the composition for which the following outline is given, you may 
record the facts about places as you learn them from your geographies. 
What you say of yourself must, of course, be, for the most part, 
imaginery. The plan will differ but little from the one already given. 

1. Time and place of starting. 

2. Intended destination. 

3. The route taken. 

4. The mode of traveling. 



SHORT BIOGRAPHIES. 75 



5. Description of scenery and places. 

6. Objects of interest on the way. 

7. Description of place visited. 

8. Manners and customs that are different from our own. 

9. Anecdote or quotation. 

Subjects. 

1. A journey from New York to Boston. 

2. From Boston to Cincinnati. 

3. From Cincinnati to Chicago. 

4. From Chicago to New Orleans. 

5. From St. Louis to San Francisco. 

6. From Cleveland to Washington. 

7. From Philadelphia to Mobile. 

8. A trip up the Mississippi river. 

9. A journey and visit to Niagara Falls. 

10. A journey and visit to Mammoth Cave. 

11. A journey and visit to the Rocky Mountains. 

12. A journey and visit to the White Mountains. 



LESSON XLI. 

41. Short biographies of celebrated persons. 

Direction. — Read and learn, then write, using the following : 
outline of composition. 

1. Where born. Parentage. 

2. Circumstances and associations of early life. 



76 REPRODUCTION OF READING LESSON. 

3. Characteristics in early life. 

4. Early occupations. 

5. Occupation or profession in later life. 

6. Character as men and women. 

7. Traits of character worthy of imitation. 

8. Time and circumstances of death. 

9. Anecdote or quotation. 







Subjects. 




1. 


Washington. 


4. 


Daniel Webster. 


2. 


Lincoln. 


5. 


Eobert Fulton. 


3. 


Franklin. 


6. 


Lady Washington 



LESSON XLII. 

12. Reproduction of reading lesson, or of narrative read or 
narrated by the teacher. 

Direction. — Having read a lesson, or listened to the reading of a 
lesson, or to a story related by the teacher, you may reproduce, in 
writing, what is contained in the lesson or story, using the following 
outline as a guide. 

I. outline for reproduction of reading lesson. 

1. The subject. 

2. Time and places mentioned. 



REPRODUCTION OF READING LESSON. 77 



3. Persons and things spoken of. 

4. Facts or events related. 

5. A hecdote told. 

The same outline may be used, and the same order observed, in 
reproducing : 

I. NARRATIVES READ BY THE TEACHER. 

II. STORIES RELATED BY THE TEACHER. • 

Direction. — Change the following poetry into prose : 

GRASS. 

Out in the fields to walk, 

Hearing the grasses talk, 
In the sweet month of June ! 

These are the works they say, 

As in low whispers they 
Speak through the silence of noon. 

" Sunbeams, come lie on me ; 

Rain, here is room for thee ; 
Clouds, here your shadows may rest ; 

Wind, you may rustle through ; 

Cow, here is food for you ; 
Horse, come and roll on my breast. 

" Ground-bird come here and see 

How you can nest with me ; 
Child, run about me and play ; 

Strong man, with cheeks so brown, 

Here come and cut me down, 
Toss me, and turn me to hay. 

" Fill high the farmer's loft, 
Then go and gather oft 



78 REPRODUCTION OF READING LESSON. 



Fodder for cattle at night ; 

Take all you'll need of me, 

I'll not live selfishly, 
Nor for my own delight. 

1 Grasshopper, butterfly, 
Bees, that with ' honeyed thigh ' 

Ever on busy wing rove, 
Born of one parent, we, 
All of one family, 

Linked to each other in love. 

" Golden-hued buttercup, 

Over me glancing up, 
By the light summer-breeze wooed, 

You to shall share with me 

This happy destiny, 
Born to be useful and good. 

" So shall the early spring, 

Life to our bosom bring, 

Verdure and beauty restore ; 

Then, taking heed of us, 

All who have need of us 

Welcome shall be as before. 

— Our Young Folks. 



UNDER THE PEAR TREE. 



Under the pear trees, on August day, 
In the long ago and the far away, 
Four little children rested from play. 

Q 

heering the hours with childish chat, 
Now laughing at this, or shouting at that, 
Till a golden pear fell straight in Fred's hat. 



REPRODUCTION OF READING LESSON. 79 



f< I'm lucky," he cried, as he hastened to eat 

The mellow pear so juicy and sweet ; 

If I tried for a week that could'nt be beat." 



Then Tom, and Jenny, and Mary spread 
Their hats and aprons wide and said, 
** We can catch pears as well as Fred." 

Then long and patient they sat, and still, 

Hoping a breeze from over the hill 

Their laps with the golden fruit would fill. 

Till weary of waiting, Tom said with a sneer, 
" I could gather a bushel of pears 'tis clear, 
While idly we wait for a windfall here." 

Then up the tree he sprang, and the power 
Of his sturdy arms soon sent a shower 
Of yellow fruit as a golden dower. 

It was long ago, that August day 

When four little children rested from play, 

Under the pear trees far away. 

And the children, older and wiser now, 
With the furrows of care on either brow, - 
Have not forgotten the lesson I trow — 

The lesson they learnt that August day, 
That for having our wishes, the surest way 
Is to work, and in earnest, without delay. 

— Scrap Book. 



80 SIMPLE LETTER WRITING. 



LESSON XLIII. 
43. Letter writing. 



Directions. — No doubt while you have been observing and de- 
scribing objects and persons, writing about your own or others' feel- 
ings and actions, asking questions, describing places and scenes, and 
telling what happened in connection with them, relating what you 
had seen and learned in going from one place to another, you have 
asked, " Of what use will all this be, after I am through with my 
composition writing at school ? " I hope that many of you have been 
able to answer your own question in this particular as well as you have 
in others. When you have thought of the many books that are used, 
the magazines and newspapers that are published, and remembered 
that all of these must first be written, you have answered, u Perhaps I 
shall be needed to do some of this work ; I may want to write a book, 
edit a newspaper, or correspond for one/' 

This may all prove to be true of you, as well as of others. Some- 
time such work must all be done by those who are now children, and 
by your composition work you have begun a preparation for it. There 
is, however, one very pleasant use which you will all want to make of 
your skill in composition. You will want to begin it soon, if you have 
not already. It is letter writing, for which you are now prepared. 

Give attention to the following : 



SIMPLE LETTER WRITING. 81 

Example. 

(Place and date.) 

(Introductory address.) 

(Body of letter.) 
(sejant &vncl €ettet &% t/te '/Ctn tttdt. ^<AaA■ a€aa€y. 

lecefue</j cttict *=* we trie, ffttAt afe/i&ttunt/tu, fa be/biu; %4 C ' 

(Subscription.) 
C/i/o-ul ctff£ectto-n.a,€* Ao-n^ 

Notice the different parts of the letter as given. The place and 
date. The introductory address. Body of the letter. The subscrip- 
tion. 

The date is written at the upper right-hand corner on the first line 
If it requires many words, it may be written, part on the first, and 
the rest on the second, immediately below it, as : 

Amherst College, Mass., ) 
September 12, 1869. j 

The parts of the date are separated by commas. N. Y. is used for 
New York, Aug. for August, inst. for instant, and Mass. for Massa- 
chusetts. 

A period is placed after each. 

This should always be done, and may be stated as another rule for 
the use of the period. 

Rule. — A period should be placed after every abbreviation. 



82 SIMPLE LETTER WRITING. 

The introductory address is placed on the next line below, at the 
left hand. 

It may vary much in style. The style depends upon your relation 
to the person whom you address ; it may be, " Dear Friend/' "My 
Dear Cousin/' or, " Dear Brother James." If you are not so familiar 
with the person whom you address, you may write as follows : 

Mr. Henry F. Harrison : 

Dear Friend, 



In using either style, you should place a colon after the first, and a 
comma after the last part of the address. 

The body of the letter is begun just below the close of the address, 
and with a capital letter. 

The name of the person writing the letter is placed below that, and 
a little further to the right. 

The expression of regard or respect must also be varied, to suit the 
style of the address used. For the body of the letter you will need no 
special instruction, only bear in mind, and apply what you have al- 
ready been taught to practice in other compositions. 

If you write on note paper, fold it thus : first, one-third upwards, 
and then one-third downwards. Select an envelope which is as long 
as the paper is wide, and then your folded paper will just fit it, and 
the package look smooth and neat. If you use large sized letter pa- 
per, fold it first, across the middle of the sheet, then the third at the 
right hand, the third at the left hand, and it will be of the proper 
size, as before. You must be careful in selecting your paper and en- 
velopes, to have them correspond in size, for if you do not, you cannot 
fold them neatly. The letter, when folded, should fill the envelope. 



SIMPLE LETTER WRITING. 



S3 







« 


,-=•^4. 


<s=/fca'cu 


(DA™. 



-^2/eniy 


-&Uii,li4.c.n., €3&a. } 








fPUt <Mleewt 


//e, 






^swCelcet 


<&«., 






*:^renn^^€-v<i'n to,. 








- 



From these diagrams you will observe the manner of placing the 
different parts of the address, and that the parts are separated by- 
commas. 

Besides the names of persons and places, I have written Mrs. and 
Esq., which are abbreviations of titles. 

I have commenced each with a capital letter. 

This should always be done ; so you may repeat it as a rule : 



84 



SIMPLE LETTER WRITING. 



Eule. — Every title should begin with a capital letter. 
You must not make the mistake that is sometimes made, of putting 
a title both before and after the name, both meaning nearly the same; 
as, " Mr. John Jones, Esq." 

The stamp is placed on the upper right-hand corner of the en- 
velope. 

Now, you may each write a letter as directed below. 
A letter from child at school : 

To brother or sister. To parent at home. 

To playmate. To uncle or aunt. 

To parent abroad. To other relatives. 




LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 



TWENTIETH EDITION 



WHITE'S MlML OF PHYS1GA 




003 243 621 3 



AND- 



INSTITUTIONS OF IOWA. 

— BY — 

Late Professor of Geology in the State University now of Bowdoin Cc^ifG 



CONTENTS. 



PART I 



PART II. 



a 



apt* 



I. — Introduction. 

//.— Boundaries and Surveys. 

III.— Character of the Surface. 

II'.— Rivers. 

V— Lakes and Peat Marshes. 

17.— Geology. 

VII. — low a Geology . 

VIII— Mineral Resources, 

IX.— The Soil. . 

A".— Productions of the Soil. 

A~J. — Animals. 

XII— Miscellaneous Resources 

XIII — Climate. 



Chapter /.— History. 

II— State Government. 

III— Counties and Townships. 
/ V— Citie- and Towns. 

r> T7— Elections and Taxes. 

J/J. _ The Public School Sys- 
tem. 

VII— The State University and 
State Agricultural Collie. 

] TIL— Special Educational 

Charitable Institutions. ; 

IX. — Penal and Reformatory 
Institutions. 



Three Colored Maps, showing the Geological Divisions, Counties, 
Judicial and Congressional Districts. 



ILLUSTRATED. 



PRICE/ 75 CENTS 



DAY, EGBERT, & PIDLAR, 

PUBLISHERS, 
DAVENPORT, IOWA. 



